A Level
A Level Paper 6: Full Topics Review
Obedience and social change, memory models, eyewitness testimony and forgetting, caregiver-infant interactions and attachment types, explanations of attachment and cultural variations, the nervous system and the brain, issues and debates in psychology, plus research methods and statistics.
Questions
Question 1 [2 marks]
Eyewitness Testimony and Forgetting
Define 'retrieval failure' as an explanation for forgetting.
Question 2 [2 marks]
Biopsychology: Nervous System and Brain
State two functions of the central nervous system (CNS).
Question 3 [2 marks]
Explanations of Attachment and Cultural Variations
State two claims made by Bowlby's monotropic theory of attachment.
Question 4 [2 marks]
Issues and Debates in Psychology
State two features of an androcentric approach to psychological research.
Question 5 [2 marks]
Research Methods and Statistics
State one strength and one limitation of using a laboratory experiment in psychological research.
Question 6 [3 marks]
Issues and Debates in Psychology
Outline what is meant by 'cultural relativism' in psychological research.
Question 7 [3 marks]
Caregiver-Infant Interactions and Attachment Types
Outline what is meant by 'interactional synchrony' between a caregiver and an infant.
Question 8 [4 marks]
Obedience and Social Change
Outline the key findings of Milgram's original obedience study.
Question 9 [4 marks]
Memory Models and Multi-Store Memory
Outline what is meant by 'capacity' and 'duration' as ways of comparing STM and LTM.
Question 10 [4 marks]
Caregiver-Infant Interactions and Attachment Types
In the Strange Situation, baby Freddie ignores his mother when she leaves the room and shows little interest when she returns.
Use your knowledge of attachment types to identify and explain Freddie's likely attachment classification.
Question 11 [4 marks]
Explanations of Attachment and Cultural Variations
Explain what is meant by 'disinhibited attachment' and outline one explanation for why it develops.
Question 12 [4 marks]
Research Methods and Statistics
A psychologist carries out a content analysis of 200 magazine adverts and finds that 45 adverts show a stereotypically 'masculine' image.
Calculate the percentage of adverts that do NOT show a stereotypically 'masculine' image, to 1 decimal place.
Question 13 [4 marks]
Eyewitness Testimony and Forgetting
Explain how misleading information can affect the accuracy of eyewitness testimony, with reference to leading questions.
Question 14 [4 marks]
Obedience and Social Change
Explain two limitations of Milgram's original study in terms of its sample.
Question 15 [5 marks]
Eyewitness Testimony and Forgetting
A witness to a burglary is interviewed twice, once immediately after the crime and once a week later, after discussing the event several times with a neighbour who also saw part of it. In the second interview, the witness reports a detail the neighbour mentioned that the witness had not noticed at the time.
Use your knowledge of post-event discussion to explain this change in the witness's account.
Question 16 [5 marks]
Biopsychology: Nervous System and Brain
Researchers studied a group of London taxi drivers who had each spent several years learning and using complex mental maps of the city's streets as part of their job, comparing brain scans with a group of non-taxi drivers. The taxi drivers showed a larger volume in the rear part of the hippocampus than the comparison group, and this was more pronounced in drivers who had done the job for longer.
Use your knowledge of plasticity to explain these findings.
Question 17 [5 marks]
Explanations of Attachment and Cultural Variations
A child adopted from an institution at age 3, having received very little individual attention before adoption, shows attention-seeking and overly friendly behaviour towards unfamiliar adults years later.
Use your knowledge of research into the effects of institutionalisation to explain this child's behaviour.
Question 18 [5 marks]
Research Methods and Statistics
Two independent groups complete a memory test. Group A (with distraction) scores 12, 14, 10, 16, 13. Group B (without distraction) scores 18, 20, 17, 19, 21.
Calculate the mean for each group and the difference between the means.
Question 19 [6 marks]
Biopsychology: Nervous System and Brain
Discuss plasticity and functional recovery of the brain after trauma.
Question 20 [6 marks]
Eyewitness Testimony and Forgetting
Discuss the application of eyewitness testimony research to the criminal justice system.
Question 21 [6 marks]
Memory Models and Multi-Store Memory
Discuss the multi-store model of memory as an explanation of human memory.
Question 22 [6 marks]
Caregiver-Infant Interactions and Attachment Types
Discuss animal studies of attachment, including reference to research by Lorenz and/or Harlow.
Question 23 [6 marks]
Memory Models and Multi-Store Memory
Discuss case study evidence for the distinction between short-term memory (STM) and long-term memory (LTM), including reference to a double dissociation.
Question 24 [6 marks]
Research Methods and Statistics
Discuss features of science, including falsifiability and paradigms, in relation to psychology.
Model solutions
| Question 1[2 marks] | |
|---|---|
| Answer or working | Marks |
| identifying retrieval failure as forgetting that occurs when information is available in LTM but cannot be accessed because the right cues are not present | 1 |
| noting the information is not lost, only temporarily inaccessible, and could potentially be recalled given the right cue | 1 |
| Final answer: Retrieval failure is forgetting that occurs when information is available in LTM but cannot be accessed without the right retrieval cues, so it is temporarily inaccessible rather than actually lost. | |
| Question 2[2 marks] | |
|---|---|
| Answer or working | Marks |
| identifying that the CNS processes and integrates incoming sensory information | 1 |
| identifying that the CNS coordinates and controls the body's responses/behaviour | 1 |
| Final answer: The CNS processes incoming sensory information and coordinates the body's responses. | |
| Question 3[2 marks] | |
|---|---|
| Answer or working | Marks |
| identifying that infants form one particularly important attachment (monotropy), usually to the mother | 1 |
| identifying that this attachment acts as a template (internal working model) for future relationships | 1 |
| Final answer: Bowlby claimed infants form one primary, especially important attachment (monotropy), which acts as an internal working model for later relationships. | |
| Question 4[2 marks] | |
|---|---|
| Answer or working | Marks |
| identifying that research/theory is centred on, or based mainly on, male participants or a male perspective | 1 |
| identifying that findings from such research may then be generalised to women in a way that misrepresents female behaviour/experience | 1 |
| Final answer: Androcentrism is research centred on a male perspective/male participants, with findings wrongly generalised to women. | |
| Question 5[2 marks] | |
|---|---|
| Answer or working | Marks |
| a suitable strength, e.g. high control over extraneous variables allows cause and effect to be established | 1 |
| a suitable limitation, e.g. the artificial setting may reduce ecological validity | 1 |
| Final answer: Strength: high control allows cause and effect to be established. Limitation: the artificial setting can reduce ecological validity. | |
| Question 6[3 marks] | |
|---|---|
| Answer or working | Marks |
| identifying cultural relativism as the idea that behaviour can only be properly understood within the context of the culture in which it occurs | 1 |
| contrasting this with judging behaviour against the norms of one's own culture, an imposed etic | 1 |
| a suitable example of a behaviour that might be judged differently depending on cultural context | 1 |
| Final answer: Cultural relativism is the view that behaviour should be understood within its own cultural context, rather than judged by the norms of a different culture. | |
| Question 7[3 marks] | |
|---|---|
| Answer or working | Marks |
| identifying interactional synchrony as caregiver and infant coordinating their behaviour | 1 |
| elaborating that they mirror each other's actions and emotions in a rhythmic, timed way | 1 |
| a suitable example, e.g. a mother and baby moving their mouths in a similar pattern at the same time | 1 |
| Final answer: Interactional synchrony is caregiver and infant mirroring each other's actions and emotions in a coordinated, rhythmic way. | |
| Question 8[4 marks] | |
|---|---|
| Answer or working | Marks |
| stating that all 40 participants obeyed to at least 300 volts | 1 |
| stating that 65% (26 of 40) of participants obeyed to the maximum 450 volts | 1 |
| noting that many participants showed signs of extreme stress/tension during the procedure, e.g. sweating or trembling | 1 |
| concluding that ordinary people are capable of high levels of obedience to a legitimate authority figure, even when it conflicts with their conscience | 1 |
| Final answer: All 40 participants obeyed to at least 300 volts and 65% obeyed to the maximum 450 volts, despite visible signs of stress, showing ordinary people can obey a legitimate authority even against their conscience. | |
| Question 9[4 marks] | |
|---|---|
| Answer or working | Marks |
| identifying capacity as the amount of information a memory store can hold | 1 |
| identifying that STM has a limited capacity, e.g. around 7 plus or minus 2 items, whereas LTM capacity is thought to be potentially unlimited | 1 |
| identifying duration as how long information can be held in a store before it is forgotten | 1 |
| identifying that STM duration is very brief without rehearsal, whereas LTM duration can last a lifetime | 1 |
| Final answer: Capacity is how much a store can hold: STM holds a limited amount (around 7 plus or minus 2 items) while LTM is thought to be unlimited. Duration is how long information lasts: STM is very brief without rehearsal, while LTM can last a lifetime. | |
| Question 10[4 marks] | |
|---|---|
| Answer or working | Marks |
| identifying Freddie as likely to be classified as insecure-avoidant | 1 |
| explaining that insecure-avoidant infants show little separation or stranger distress | 1 |
| explaining that they show little interest in reunion and do not seek contact with the caregiver | 1 |
| noting this pattern is associated with caregivers who are less responsive or emotionally unavailable | 1 |
| Final answer: Freddie's behaviour is consistent with insecure-avoidant attachment: little separation distress and little interest at reunion. | |
| Question 11[4 marks] | |
|---|---|
| Answer or working | Marks |
| identifying disinhibited attachment as attention-seeking, over-friendly behaviour directed towards any adult, familiar or not | 1 |
| elaborating, e.g. the child shows little or no stranger anxiety, unlike a typically attached child | 1 |
| identifying a lack of a single, stable early attachment figure in institutional care as a proposed explanation | 1 |
| elaborating that the child may learn to seek attention indiscriminately from any available adult rather than forming one preferred bond | 1 |
| Final answer: Disinhibited attachment is attention-seeking, over-friendly behaviour towards any adult, with little stranger anxiety; it is thought to develop when a child has no single, stable early attachment figure, e.g. in institutional care. | |
| Question 12[4 marks] | |
|---|---|
| Answer or working | Marks |
| finding the number of adverts that do not show the image, 200 - 45 = 155 | M1 |
| setting up 155 / 200 x 100 | M1 |
| correct calculator evaluation before rounding | M1 |
| 77.5% | A1 |
| Question 13[4 marks] | |
|---|---|
| Answer or working | Marks |
| identifying misleading information as information supplied after an event that may distort a witness's memory of it | 1 |
| identifying leading questions as one form of misleading information | 1 |
| explaining the response-bias explanation, where the wording of the question influences the answer given without altering the underlying memory | 1 |
| explaining the substitution explanation, where the original memory is altered or replaced by the misleading information | 1 |
| Final answer: Leading questions can distort recall either by biasing the response given (response-bias) or by actually altering the memory itself (substitution). | |
| Question 14[4 marks] | |
|---|---|
| Answer or working | Marks |
| identifying that the sample consisted only of American men | 1 |
| elaborating that this limits population validity, since findings may not generalise to women or to other cultures | 1 |
| identifying that participants volunteered in response to a newspaper advertisement | 1 |
| elaborating that this may have produced a sample with unusually obedient characteristics, further limiting generalisability to the wider population | 1 |
| Final answer: The sample was all American men, limiting generalisability to women or other cultures, and consisted of volunteers responding to an advert, who may not represent the wider population in their obedience. | |
| Question 15[5 marks] | |
|---|---|
| Answer or working | Marks |
| identifying post-event discussion as witnesses discussing an event with each other after it has occurred | 1 |
| identifying memory conformity as the likely explanation for the new detail appearing in the second account | 1 |
| explaining that the witness may have accepted the neighbour's detail through informational influence, assuming the neighbour noticed something they missed | 1 |
| noting the witness may now genuinely believe they remember the detail themselves, showing memory itself, not just the reported account, can be altered | 1 |
| a suitable further point, e.g. this illustrates why police are advised to interview witnesses separately and as soon as possible after an event | 1 |
| Final answer: The new detail likely reflects memory conformity through post-event discussion: the witness accepted the neighbour's detail via informational influence, assuming the neighbour saw something they missed, and may now genuinely believe they remember it, which is why police are advised to interview witnesses separately and quickly. | |
| Question 16[5 marks] | |
|---|---|
| Answer or working | Marks |
| identifying this as an example of brain plasticity, the brain changing its structure in response to experience | 1 |
| identifying the hippocampus as a brain area associated with spatial memory and navigation | 1 |
| explaining that the extensive navigation experience required for the job appears to have caused structural growth in this area | 1 |
| noting the finding that the effect was more pronounced with more time in the job supports a causal role for the experience itself, rather than a pre-existing difference | 1 |
| noting this supports the idea that plasticity can continue in the adult brain, not only during childhood development | 1 |
| Final answer: This reflects brain plasticity: extensive spatial navigation experience appears to have caused structural growth in the hippocampus, with a stronger effect for longer-serving drivers, supporting continued plasticity in the adult brain. | |
| Question 17[5 marks] | |
|---|---|
| Answer or working | Marks |
| identifying the child's behaviour as consistent with disinhibited attachment | 1 |
| identifying disinhibited attachment as attention-seeking, clingy behaviour towards any adult, familiar or not | 1 |
| linking this to research on Romanian orphans, where disinhibited attachment was more common in children adopted after infancy | 1 |
| explaining this is thought to result from a failure to form a single, stable early attachment in the institution | 1 |
| noting that earlier adoption, before around 6 months, was associated with better long-term outcomes in this research | 1 |
| Final answer: The child shows disinhibited attachment, attention-seeking behaviour towards any adult; this is linked to Romanian orphan studies where late adoption after a lack of stable early attachment predicted this pattern, whereas earlier adoption was linked to better outcomes. | |
| Question 18[5 marks] | |
|---|---|
| Answer or working | Marks |
| summing Group A's scores, 12 + 14 + 10 + 16 + 13 = 65 | M1 |
| a Group A mean of 13 (65 / 5) | A1 |
| summing Group B's scores, 18 + 20 + 17 + 19 + 21 = 95 | M1 |
| a Group B mean of 19 (95 / 5) | A1 |
| a difference between the means of 6 (19 - 13) | A1 |
| Final answer: Group A mean = 13, Group B mean = 19, difference between the means = 6. | |
| Question 19[6 marks] | |
|---|---|
| Answer or working | Marks |
| outlining plasticity as the brain's ability to change and adapt its structure/function as a result of experience | 1 |
| outlining functional recovery as the brain's tendency to redistribute or transfer functions usually performed by a damaged area to undamaged areas after trauma | 1 |
| identifying a mechanism of functional recovery, e.g. axonal sprouting, where undamaged axons grow new nerve endings to reconnect neurons | 1 |
| an evaluation point, e.g. research support finding cognitive reserve/education level is linked to a greater likelihood of functional recovery after brain injury | 1 |
| an evaluation point, e.g. functional recovery is not guaranteed and tends to slow down with age, showing plasticity decreases across the lifespan | 1 |
| an evaluation point, e.g. understanding of plasticity has practical application, informing rehabilitation techniques such as constraint-induced movement therapy | 1 |
| Final answer: Outline plasticity, the brain adapting to experience, and functional recovery, undamaged areas taking over lost functions, e.g. via axonal sprouting, after trauma; evaluate with support from cognitive reserve research and practical rehabilitation applications, while noting recovery slows with age. | |
| Question 20[6 marks] | |
|---|---|
| Answer or working | Marks |
| outlining that laboratory research, e.g. into leading questions, has informed guidance on how police should phrase questions to witnesses | 1 |
| outlining that the cognitive interview, developed from psychological research, is now used by police forces to improve the accuracy of witness accounts | 1 |
| identifying that research has highlighted the risk of wrongful conviction based on inaccurate but confident eyewitness testimony | 1 |
| an evaluation point, e.g. much of the underpinning research used artificial lab tasks, questioning how directly it applies to genuinely traumatic real crimes | 1 |
| an evaluation point, e.g. field studies of real witnesses, such as of an actual robbery, support reasonably accurate recall of central details, suggesting some real-world applicability | 1 |
| a concluding evaluation point, e.g. despite these limitations, EWT research has had clear practical value in shaping interview procedure and identification guidelines | 1 |
| Final answer: EWT research has practically improved police questioning and interview technique (e.g. the cognitive interview) and highlighted the risk of wrongful conviction from confident but inaccurate testimony; its main limitation is reliance on artificial lab research, though field studies of real witnesses support some real-world applicability. | |
| Question 21[6 marks] | |
|---|---|
| Answer or working | Marks |
| outlining the three stores (sensory register, STM, LTM) and their features, e.g. capacity, duration, encoding | 1 |
| outlining the role of attention and rehearsal in moving information between stores | 1 |
| an evaluation point, e.g. case studies of amnesia showing a double dissociation between STM and LTM support separate stores | 1 |
| an evaluation point, e.g. the model is oversimplified, treating STM and LTM as single unitary stores | 1 |
| an evaluation point, e.g. the working memory model provides a more detailed account of STM, undermining the view of STM as unitary | 1 |
| an evaluation point, e.g. case study evidence lacks the control of experimental research, limiting causal conclusions | 1 |
| Final answer: Outline the three-store structure and rehearsal/attention processes; evaluate with case study support for separate stores, but oversimplification and challenge from the working memory model. | |
| Question 22[6 marks] | |
|---|---|
| Answer or working | Marks |
| outlining Lorenz's research into imprinting in geese, where goslings followed the first moving object they saw after hatching | 1 |
| identifying the concept of a critical period in Lorenz's findings, imprinting only occurring within a limited early time window | 1 |
| outlining Harlow's research with rhesus monkeys, showing they preferred a soft cloth surrogate mother to a wire one that provided food | 1 |
| identifying that Harlow's findings challenged learning theory by showing comfort/contact, not just food, drives attachment | 1 |
| an evaluation point, e.g. generalising findings from geese or monkeys to human attachment is questionable given species differences | 1 |
| an evaluation point, e.g. Harlow's monkeys later showed abnormal social and parenting behaviour as adults, raising serious ethical concerns about the research | 1 |
| Final answer: Lorenz's geese imprinted on the first moving object within a critical period; Harlow's monkeys preferred a comforting cloth surrogate over a food-providing wire one, challenging learning theory. Both studies raise generalisability concerns to humans, and Harlow's raises serious ethical concerns given the monkeys' later abnormal behaviour. | |
| Question 23[6 marks] | |
|---|---|
| Answer or working | Marks |
| outlining that some amnesia patients show severely impaired LTM, unable to form new long-term memories, but a relatively intact STM | 1 |
| outlining that other patients, e.g. with damage specifically affecting STM, show the opposite pattern, a poor STM but a relatively intact LTM | 1 |
| identifying this pattern, where each store can be damaged independently of the other, as a double dissociation | 1 |
| explaining that a double dissociation is strong evidence that STM and LTM are separate stores, rather than one unitary system | 1 |
| an evaluation point, e.g. such patients typically have widespread, uncontrolled brain damage, making it hard to link a deficit to one specific, precisely damaged area | 1 |
| an evaluation point, e.g. case studies involve a single unusual individual, limiting how confidently the findings can be generalised to memory in the general population | 1 |
| Final answer: Some patients show impaired LTM but intact STM, while others show the reverse pattern; this double dissociation, each store able to be damaged independently, is strong evidence that STM and LTM are separate stores, though the widespread brain damage typical of such patients and the limited generalisability of single case studies are both limitations of this evidence. | |
| Question 24[6 marks] | |
|---|---|
| Answer or working | Marks |
| identifying falsifiability as the idea that, for a theory to be scientific, it must be possible in principle to prove it wrong through testing | 1 |
| identifying a paradigm as a shared set of assumptions and methods generally accepted within a scientific discipline at a given time | 1 |
| outlining a paradigm shift as a significant change in these shared assumptions, describing how an established science, such as physics, tends to progress | 1 |
| an evaluation point, e.g. psychology has been criticised as not yet having a single agreed paradigm, being made up of several distinct approaches that sometimes conflict | 1 |
| an evaluation point, e.g. some argue this shows psychology is a 'pre-science' rather than a mature science | 1 |
| an evaluation point, e.g. the use of falsifiable, testable hypotheses across most approaches suggests psychology broadly follows scientific principles even without one unifying paradigm | 1 |
| Final answer: Outline falsifiability and paradigms/paradigm shifts; evaluate psychology's lack of a single agreed paradigm against its broadly scientific use of falsifiable, testable hypotheses. | |