Liberal Thinkers: John Stuart Mill and John Rawls
John Stuart Mill and John Rawls are the two thinkers examiners expect for liberalism's development from its classical to its modern form.
Before you start
Make sure you're comfortable with these topics first:
Method
- Learn Mill's harm principle word for word in substance: the state or society may only limit liberty to prevent harm to others, never merely to prevent harm to the individual themselves or to enforce a moral or social norm.
- Distinguish Mill's 'tyranny of the majority' from tyranny by a monarch or dictator: for Mill the danger in a democracy is social and legal conformity crushing minority views, not only formal oppression by a ruler.
- Learn Rawls's two principles of justice in order and by name: the equal basic liberties principle, then the difference principle (inequality justified only if it benefits the least advantaged, attached to fair equality of opportunity).
- Always explain the 'veil of ignorance' and 'original position' as a thought experiment, not a real historical event: it is a device for working out fair principles by removing self-interested bias about one's own position in society.
- When comparing Mill and Rawls, show the line of development: Mill limits state interference with liberty but, especially in his later writing, becomes open to state action against poverty and ignorance, which Rawls then develops into a full theory of distributive justice.
- Use both thinkers to answer questions on the state's role in the economy or on free speech and toleration, since Mill is strongest on liberty of expression and Rawls is strongest on economic and social justice.
- For an evaluative question, test each thinker's argument against a plausible objection, for example whether the harm principle can really separate self-regarding from other-regarding conduct, or whether the veil of ignorance realistically predicts what people would choose.
Worked example
A student has been asked: 'Explain Rawls's argument for the difference principle.' Plan an answer that uses the veil of ignorance correctly.
- Set up the thought experiment: imagine rational people choosing the basic principles of their society from behind a 'veil of ignorance', not knowing their own future class, talents, sex or beliefs.
- Explain why this matters: not knowing your own position removes self-interested bias, so the principles chosen should be fair to everyone, including the worst-off, since you might turn out to be that person.
- State the first principle people would choose first: equal basic liberties for all, since no rational person behind the veil would risk ending up with fewer rights than others.
- State the second principle, the difference principle: social and economic inequalities are only justified if they are attached to positions genuinely open to all (fair equality of opportunity) and they benefit the least advantaged members of society.
- Give the reasoning behind this: because you might end up as the least advantaged person, it is rational to accept inequality only if it improves your position compared with strict equality, for example incentive-driven inequality that grows the economy for everyone.
- Close by stating the conclusion: this justifies a state active enough to redistribute wealth and secure equal opportunity, making Rawls's theory the clearest modern liberal argument for an enabling state.
Practice questions
Type your answer and press Check to be marked straight away, or reveal the answer and mark yourself.
Q1State Mill's harm principle.Show answer
Answer: The only legitimate reason to limit an individual's liberty against their will is to prevent harm to others; purely self-regarding conduct should not be interfered with.
Q2What did Mill mean by the 'tyranny of the majority'?Show answer
Answer: The risk that, in a democracy, the majority's opinions and social pressure could crush the freedom of individuals and minorities just as effectively as legal oppression by a ruler.
Q3In which work did Mill argue for women's suffrage and equal rights?Show answer
Answer: The Subjection of Women (1869).
Q4What is the 'veil of ignorance' in Rawls's theory?Show answer
Answer: A thought experiment in which people choosing the principles of justice for their society do not know their own social position, talents, sex or beliefs, forcing them to choose fairly rather than in their own self-interest.
Q5State Rawls's first principle of justice.Show answer
Answer: Each person is to have an equal right to the most extensive basic liberties compatible with similar liberties for others.
Q6State Rawls's difference principle.Show answer
Answer: Social and economic inequalities are only justified if they are attached to positions open to all under fair equality of opportunity and they benefit the least advantaged members of society.
Q7Why does Mill defend free speech even for opinions most people believe are false?Show answer
Answer: Because allowing false opinions to be challenged in open debate helps society test, refine and hold on to the truth for the right reasons, rather than as unexamined dogma.
Q8Give one way Rawls's theory differs from classical liberalism.Show answer
Answer: Rawls justifies state-led redistribution to benefit the least advantaged, whereas classical liberalism, following Locke, limits the state to protecting pre-existing natural rights to property without redistributing it.
Exam-style questions
Written in the style of a A Level Politics exam paper, with a full mark scheme.
Analyse the similarities and differences between the ideas of John Stuart Mill and John Rawls.
Show mark scheme
Tick each line you got. Your score builds from the marks on the scheme.
Nothing ticked yet - 12 available
Evaluate the extent to which Rawls's theory of justice provides a stronger basis for liberal government than Mill's harm principle. You must consider this view and the alternative view in a balanced way, and reach a supported judgement.
Show mark scheme
Tick each line you got. Your score builds from the marks on the scheme.
Nothing ticked yet - 24 available
See real A Level Politics past-paper questions, with official mark schemes →
Free printable worksheet
Want more practice on paper? Download the liberal thinkers: john stuart mill and john rawls worksheet pack - 6 pages of exam-style questions with a full mark scheme. One email opens every download in this browser for 14 days - no account, no card. Print it for personal and classroom use.
Next topics
Not quite what you needed?
Tell us what is missing on liberal thinkers: john stuart mill and john rawls, or which topic to write up next. Every request is read, and we reply to every one.
Build a full practice pack.
This topic is one of hundreds in the library - pick the ones a student needs and generate a printable PDF in minutes.