Global Development: Theories of Development, Underdevelopment and World Systems
Global development theories try to explain why some countries industrialised and became wealthy while others remained poor, and what should be done about it. Modernisation theory, associated with Rostow's stages of economic growth, argues underdevelopment is mainly caused by internal, cultural barriers within poorer countries, traditional values, low savings and limited investment, and that development happens by passing through fixed stages (traditional society, preconditions for take-off, take-off, drive to maturity, age of mass consumption), a process that Western aid, investment and values can help accelerate. Dependency theory, particularly Andre Gunder Frank's account, rejects this internal explanation, arguing poorer countries (the periphery) are poor precisely because of their historical and ongoing exploitation by richer countries (the core), a relationship Frank calls the 'development of underdevelopment': colonialism and unequal trade actively extracted wealth from poorer regions and structured their economies to serve richer countries' needs, rather than poorer countries simply lagging behind on a shared path. Wallerstein's world systems theory extends this into a single global capitalist economy with three tiers, core, periphery and semi-periphery, in which position within this world system, not internal cultural traits, chiefly determines a country's level of development. Neoliberal theorists, such as Warren, criticise dependency theory from a different direction, arguing that global trade and foreign investment can genuinely benefit poorer countries by driving industrialisation, rather than only exploiting them.
Before you start
No specific prerequisites - this is a good place to start.
Method
- Set out modernisation theory's key claim clearly: underdevelopment is caused mainly by internal barriers within poorer countries (traditional culture, low investment), and development is a staged process every country can, in principle, pass through.
- Learn Rostow's five stages in order with a brief description of each: traditional society, preconditions for take-off, take-off, drive to maturity, and age of mass consumption, since exam questions sometimes ask students to identify or apply a specific stage.
- Present dependency theory as a direct rejection of modernisation theory's internal explanation: Frank argues poverty in the periphery results from an external relationship of historical and ongoing exploitation by the core, not from internal cultural failings.
- Define Frank's 'development of underdevelopment' precisely: colonialism and unequal trade did not simply fail to develop poorer regions, they actively structured those regions' economies to extract wealth and resources for richer countries, producing underdevelopment as an active outcome, not a starting condition.
- Explain Wallerstein's world systems theory as extending dependency theory into a single, interconnected global economy with three positions (core, periphery, semi-periphery), where a country's position in this system, which can shift over time, is the main determinant of its development level.
- Bring in Warren's neoliberal critique as a distinct third position: unlike modernisation theory, it does not blame internal culture, but unlike dependency theory, it argues global trade and foreign investment can genuinely drive industrialisation and raise living standards in poorer countries rather than only exploiting them.
- If the item names a specific country's development strategy or history, identify which theory's framework it best illustrates (internal barriers and staged growth, external exploitation, world-system position, or beneficial global trade) before generalising.
- For an evaluative answer, use historical and contemporary evidence for each theory: newly industrialised economies that grew rapidly through trade could support Warren; the historical legacy of colonial extraction in many low-income countries could support Frank; persistent internal barriers such as conflict or weak institutions could support elements of modernisation theory.
Worked example
Item A: During the colonial period, a country's economy was reorganised around exporting a small number of raw materials to the colonising power, with little investment in local manufacturing industries. After independence, the country continued to rely heavily on exporting the same raw materials and struggled to develop its own manufacturing base. Applying material from Item A and your knowledge, analyse two ways dependency theory explains the pattern described. (10 marks)
- Identify the item's key pattern: colonial-era reorganisation around raw material exports with little manufacturing investment, continuing after independence.
- Way 1: use Frank's 'development of underdevelopment' directly, the colonial reorganisation around raw material exports was not neutral, it actively structured the economy to serve the coloniser's needs, producing underdevelopment rather than simply leaving development to happen later.
- Develop way 1: explain that this legacy did not disappear at independence, since the economic structure (reliance on raw material exports, weak manufacturing) was already built in, showing dependency is a lasting structural relationship, not just a historical event.
- Way 2: use Wallerstein's world systems theory as a complementary explanation, the country's position as a raw-material exporter locates it in the periphery of the global capitalist economy, a position that world systems theory argues chiefly determines its development level, regardless of internal effort.
- Add a brief contrast with modernisation theory: a modernisation theorist might instead point to the lack of local manufacturing investment as an internal barrier, but the item's colonial detail suggests this lack of investment was itself a product of the external relationship, supporting the dependency reading.
- Check both ways are tied explicitly to the item's colonial and post-independence detail, and named using Frank and Wallerstein rather than a generic account of underdevelopment.
Practice questions
Try each question, then tap to reveal the answer.
Q1According to modernisation theory, what mainly causes underdevelopment?Show answer
Answer: Internal, cultural barriers within poorer countries, such as traditional values and low savings and investment, rather than external factors.
Q2List Rostow's five stages of economic growth in order.Show answer
Answer: Traditional society, preconditions for take-off, take-off, drive to maturity, and age of mass consumption.
Q3What does Frank mean by the 'development of underdevelopment'?Show answer
Answer: That poorer countries' underdevelopment was actively produced by historical and ongoing exploitation by richer countries, through colonialism and unequal trade, rather than being their original or natural starting condition.
Q4What are the three tiers of Wallerstein's world systems theory?Show answer
Answer: The core, the periphery, and the semi-periphery, which together make up a single interconnected global capitalist economy.
Q5How does Warren's neoliberal view challenge dependency theory?Show answer
Answer: Warren argues global trade and foreign investment can genuinely benefit poorer countries by driving industrialisation and raising living standards, rather than only exploiting them, as dependency theory suggests.
Q6Give one criticism of modernisation theory.Show answer
Answer: It has been criticised for blaming poorer countries' own culture and internal traits for underdevelopment while ignoring the historical role of colonialism and unequal global trade relationships, which dependency theorists argue is a more significant cause.
Exam-style questions
Written in the style of a A Level Sociology exam paper, with a full mark scheme.
Outline and explain two differences between modernisation theory and dependency theory.
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Item B: A country that gained independence several decades ago continues to export mainly unprocessed raw materials to wealthier nations, and receives back manufactured goods at a much higher price, so the value of its exports has grown far more slowly than the value of its imports over time. Applying material from Item B and your knowledge, analyse two ways world systems theory explains the pattern described. (10 marks)
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Item C: Some economists point to countries that industrialised rapidly over recent decades through expanding trade and foreign investment, using this as evidence that openness to the global economy drives development. Others point to countries whose economies remain dominated by exporting the same raw materials they exported under colonial rule, using this as evidence that the global economic system still holds some countries back. Applying material from Item C and your knowledge, evaluate sociological theories of global development. (20 marks)
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See real A Level Sociology past-paper questions, with official mark schemes →
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