Sociological Perspectives: Functionalism, Marxism, Feminism and Interactionism
Sociologists analyse society using four perspectives: functionalism, institutions working together to maintain shared values; Marxism, society structured by class conflict; feminism, society structured by patriarchy; and interactionism, a micro-level view built through everyday interaction.
Before you start
Make sure you're comfortable with these topics first:
Method
- Learn the one-sentence core claim of each of the four perspectives so you can identify which is being described in an unfamiliar item.
- Learn one named theorist per perspective: Durkheim or Parsons for functionalism, Marx for Marxism, a named feminist such as Oakley or Walby, and Mead, Goffman or Becker for interactionism.
- Learn one clear strength and one clear criticism of each perspective, ideally a criticism made from a different perspective, such as a Marxist criticism of functionalism.
- Practise applying each perspective to different topics on the course, such as the family, education or crime, rather than only defining the perspectives in the abstract.
- In an 'assess' or 'discuss' question, always compare at least two perspectives directly rather than describing them one after another with no link between them.
- Group functionalism and Marxism as structural, macro-level theories, but remember functionalism is a consensus theory while Marxism and feminism are conflict theories.
- Use interactionism as the contrast case in evaluation, since it is the only micro/action perspective on the specification, focusing on meaning and agency rather than structure.
Worked example
A sociology textbook states: 'Schools exist to pass on society's shared values and prepare pupils to take their place in an efficient, smoothly-running workforce.' Identify which sociological perspective this statement most closely reflects, name one theorist associated with it, and explain one criticism a Marxist sociologist would make of this view of education.
- Look for the key words in the statement: 'shared values' and a smoothly running 'society' point to a consensus, structural perspective rather than a conflict one.
- Identify the perspective: this is a functionalist view of education, since it describes schools performing a positive function for society as a whole.
- Name a theorist: Emile Durkheim, or Talcott Parsons, who argued institutions such as education exist to maintain value consensus and prepare individuals for their role in society.
- Recall the Marxist alternative: Marxists argue education does not serve 'society as a whole' but mainly serves the interests of the ruling class by reproducing a workforce trained to accept authority and inequality without question.
- State the criticism precisely: a Marxist would criticise the statement for assuming schools benefit everyone equally, when Marxists argue schools actually help reproduce class inequality from one generation to the next, for example by preparing working-class pupils for working-class jobs.
- Conclude: identifying the theorist and the assumption behind a statement, consensus versus conflict, is the key skill needed to answer perspectives questions, not just recognising the perspective's name.
Practice questions
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Q1What is the core claim of functionalism about how society holds together?Show answer
Answer: That society is based on value consensus, a set of shared norms and values, and that institutions work together, like organs in a body, performing functions that maintain social order.
Q2Name one sociologist associated with functionalism.Show answer
Answer: Emile Durkheim, or Talcott Parsons.
Q3What is the core claim of Marxism about how society is structured?Show answer
Answer: That society is divided by class conflict between the bourgeoisie, who own the means of production, and the proletariat, whose labour is exploited, and that most institutions serve the interests of the ruling class.
Q4Give one criticism of functionalism.Show answer
Answer: It is criticised for ignoring conflict and inequality in society and for assuming institutions benefit everyone equally, when they may mainly benefit those already in power.
Q5What is meant by 'patriarchy' in feminist theory?Show answer
Answer: A system in which men hold most of the power in society, and institutions are structured in ways that advantage men over women.
Q6According to interactionists such as Erving Goffman or Howard Becker, how is deviance created?Show answer
Answer: Through labelling; deviance is not a fixed quality of an act itself but is created when powerful individuals or agencies label certain behaviour as deviant.
Q7Which perspectives focus on macro, large-scale structures, and which focuses on micro, small-scale interaction?Show answer
Answer: Functionalism, Marxism and feminism focus on macro/structural analysis; interactionism focuses on micro-level, everyday interaction.
Q8Give one similarity between Marxism and feminism as perspectives.Show answer
Answer: Both are conflict perspectives that see society as based on inequality between groups, class for Marxism and gender for feminism, and both criticise functionalism for treating existing arrangements as natural or beneficial to all.
Exam-style questions
Written in the style of a GCSE Sociology exam paper, with a full mark scheme.
Explain two differences between the functionalist and Marxist perspectives on society.
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Analyse two ways in which the interactionist perspective differs from structural perspectives such as functionalism and Marxism.
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Item C: Functionalists argue that society is based on shared values and that institutions such as the family, education and religion work together for the good of everyone. Marxists reject this, arguing that society is based on conflict between social classes, and that institutions mainly serve the interests of the ruling class rather than of society as a whole. Discuss the extent to which Marxism offers a more convincing explanation of society than functionalism.
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