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A-Level · English Language

AE.T6 Language: Child Language Acquisition

AQA 7702 (A-Level English Language); style-compatible with 7712/7701 AS conventions · Calculators not allowed · about 150 minutes

Total Marks

Name: _______________________________ Date: ____ / ____ / ______

Answer ALL questions. Show all your working.

Child Language Transcripts: Aaliyah and Kai (Original Data, Extracts A-D)

Source written for Revision Library (original, copyright-free). These are invented transcripts composed specifically for A-level English Language study; they do not represent real children, families or recordings, and no identifying details are genuine. Lines are numbered within each transcript for ease of reference in the questions that follow.

Transcription key: round brackets ( ) show non-verbal actions or context; ages are given as years;months (e.g. 1;10 = 1 year 10 months). All names are pseudonyms; none of the material below represents a real child, family or recording.

TRANSCRIPT A: Aaliyah (1;10) playing with a toy farm set with her father (Dad) at home.

A1. Aaliyah: (pointing at the toy cow) "tow!"

A2. Dad: "That's a cow, well done. Can you say cow?"

A3. Aaliyah: "tow."

A4. Aaliyah: (picking up the toy dog) "dat woof-woof."

A5. Dad: "Yes, that's the dog. What does the dog say?"

A6. Aaliyah: "woof woof."

A7. Aaliyah: (pointing at the toy sheep) "doggy!"

A8. Dad: "It's a sheep actually, not a doggy. Sheep say baa."

A9. Aaliyah: "baa baa."

A10. Aaliyah: (picking up the toy tractor, then dropping it) "utoh. tacto falled down."

A11. Dad: "Oh no, the tractor fell down. Shall we pick it up together?"

A12. Aaliyah: "pick up. more tacto."

A13. Aaliyah: (reaching for her drink) "more dink peas."

A14. Dad: "More drink please, here you go."

A15. Aaliyah: (drinking) "tank oo."

A16. Dad: (offering a different cup from the one Aaliyah usually uses) "Here's a cup for you."

A17. Aaliyah: (pushing it away) "no! not cup! Aaliyah cup!" (pointing at her own cup on the table)

A18. Dad: "Oh I see, you want your own cup."

TRANSCRIPT B: Kai (4;6) telling his mother (Mum) about his school trip to the park, at school pick-up.

B1. Kai: "Mummy, guess what! We goed to the park and I seed three gooses!"

B2. Mum: "Wow, three geese! What were they doing?"

B3. Kai: "They was eating bread and one of them runned after Freya cos she dropped her sandwich."

B4. Mum: "That sounds funny. Were you scared?"

B5. Kai: "No! I not scared. I telled it to go away and it goed away."

B6. Mum: "Good boy. What else did you do?"

B7. Kai: "We builded a den with sticks and Mr Patel said it was the bestest den ever."

B8. Mum: "That's brilliant, Kai."

B9. Kai: "Can we go to the park again tomorrow? Please can we, please?"

TRANSCRIPT C: Aaliyah (1;6), playing with building bricks with her mother (Mum). Only Aaliyah's utterances are given, numbered C1 to C10, for the Mean Length of Utterance task in Question 5.

C1. "brick."

C2. "more."

C3. "mummy look."

C4. "brick fall."

C5. "uh oh."

C6. "more brick."

C7. "big brick."

C8. "no."

C9. "mummy help."

C10. "there."

TRANSCRIPT D: Aaliyah (3;6), playing with the same building bricks with her mother (Mum), twenty-four months after Transcript C. Only Aaliyah's utterances are given, numbered D1 to D10, for Question 7.

D1. "I'm building a tower."

D2. "It's falling down!"

D3. "Help me pick it up."

D4. "This goes on top."

D5. "I want the red brick."

D6. "I'm fixing it."

D7. "My tower is the biggest."

D8. "Where's my brick gone?"

D9. "I found it under the sofa."

D10. "Can we build another one?"

Refer to Transcript A in the source material (Aaliyah, 1;10, playing with a toy farm set with her father). Aaliyah produces several non-standard pronunciations during the interaction.

(a)Aaliyah says "tow" for "cow" (line A1). Identify the phonological process shown and explain the change that has occurred.(2)

(b)Aaliyah says "dat" for "that" (line A4) and "tank oo" for "thank you" (line A15). Identify the shared phonological process and explain, using appropriate terminology, why this pattern is common in early child speech.(3)

(c)Explain, with reference to lines A10, A12 and A13, how Aaliyah's pronunciation of 'tractor' as 'tacto' and 'drink' as 'dink' illustrate consonant cluster reduction. Refer to specific sounds in your answer.(3)

(d)Aaliyah's speech in Transcript A shows several different phonological processes rather than one. Using your wider knowledge, explain what this variety suggests about the systematic (rule-governed) nature of phonological development in young children.(4)

(Total for Question 1 is 12 marks)

Refer to Transcript B in the source material (Kai, 4;6, telling his mother about a school trip to the park).

(a)Identify three examples of overgeneralisation in Kai's speech in Transcript B and state which grammatical rule has been overapplied in each case.(3)

(b)Kai says "the bestest den ever" (line B7). Explain what process has produced this form and why examples like this are described by linguists as 'virtuous errors'.(4)

(c)Kai says "they was eating bread" (line B3). Explain what this shows about Kai's current stage of grammatical development, with reference to subject-verb agreement.(3)

(Total for Question 2 is 10 marks)

Refer to Transcript A in the source material.

(a)Define the terms 'overextension' and 'underextension' in child language acquisition.(2)

(b)With reference to line A7 ("doggy!" said of the toy sheep), explain how Aaliyah's use of "doggy" is an example of overextension. Suggest one possible reason for this pattern.(3)

(c)With reference to lines A16 to A18, explain how Aaliyah's use of "cup" illustrates underextension, and explain how you would expect this to change as she develops.(3)

(Total for Question 3 is 8 marks)

Refer to Transcript B in the source material and to Halliday's model of the functions of children's early speech.

(a)Identify one utterance from Transcript B that fulfils an instrumental function and one that fulfils an interactional function. Justify each choice.(4)

(b)Kai's speech in this transcript is far more complex than the proto-linguistic utterances Halliday originally described. Explain, with reference to the transcript, how a single utterance can now perform more than one function at once.(4)

(Total for Question 4 is 8 marks)

Refer to Transcript C in the source material (Aaliyah, 1;6, playing with building bricks with her mother). Only Aaliyah's utterances, numbered C1 to C10, are relevant to this question.

(a)Using Brown's method for calculating Mean Length of Utterance (MLU) in morphemes, calculate Aaliyah's MLU across utterances C1 to C10. Show your working, including the total number of morphemes and the number of utterances used.(3)

(b)State which of Brown's stages of language development this MLU value corresponds to, and describe two grammatical features you would expect to see at this stage.(3)

(c)Explain two limitations of MLU as a measure of a child's linguistic development.(4)

(Total for Question 5 is 10 marks)

Refer to Transcript A in the source material.

(a)Identify three features of child-directed speech (CDS) used by Dad in Transcript A, giving one example (with line reference) of each.(3)

(b)Explain, using Bruner's concept of the LASS (Language Acquisition Support System), how Dad's turns in Transcript A support Aaliyah's language development.(4)

(Total for Question 6 is 7 marks)

Refer to Transcript C (Aaliyah, 1;6) and Transcript D (Aaliyah, 3;6) in the source material.

(a)Compare the grammatical complexity of Aaliyah's speech in Transcript C (age 1;6) and Transcript D (age 3;6). Refer to specific features in both transcripts.(5)

(b)Calculate the approximate MLU for Transcript D and use it, alongside your answer to part (a), to justify which of Brown's stages best describes Aaliyah's development at 3;6.(5)

(Total for Question 7 is 10 marks)

Refer to Transcript A and Transcript B in the source material and to your wider knowledge of theories of child language acquisition.

(a)Explain, using Skinner's behaviourist theory of language acquisition, how imitation and reinforcement could account for Aaliyah's language development in Transcript A.(5)

(b)Evaluate one weakness of Skinner's theory, using evidence from either Transcript A or Transcript B to support your evaluation.(5)

(Total for Question 8 is 10 marks)

Refer to Transcript B in the source material and to your wider knowledge of theories of child language acquisition.

(a)Outline Chomsky's nativist theory of language acquisition, including the concepts of the Language Acquisition Device (LAD) and the 'poverty of the stimulus' argument.(5)

(b)Using evidence from Transcript B, evaluate the extent to which Kai's errors support Chomsky's nativist theory.(5)

(Total for Question 9 is 10 marks)

Refer to Transcript A in the source material and to your wider knowledge of theories of child language acquisition.

(a)Outline Piaget's cognitive theory of language development, including the concept of schemas and the idea that language development is dependent on cognitive development.(4)

(b)Aaliyah's utterance "utoh" in Transcript A (line A10) accompanies the tractor falling and disappearing from view. Explain how a Piagetian psychologist might interpret this utterance in relation to object permanence.(4)

(Total for Question 10 is 8 marks)

Refer to Transcript A and Transcript B in the source material and to your wider knowledge of theories of child language acquisition.

(a)Outline Bruner's social interactionist theory of language acquisition, including the concept of the LASS and the term 'format'.(4)

(b)Compare how Mum's turns in Transcript B provide social/interactional support for Kai's language development with Dad's turns in Transcript A. Which transcript shows a more classic Bruner-style 'format', and why?(4)

(Total for Question 11 is 8 marks)

'Children's grammatical development is best explained by their exposure to caregiver input and social interaction, rather than by an innate biological mechanism.'
Using your wider knowledge of theories and evidence relating to child language acquisition, discuss the extent to which you agree with this view. You may refer to the transcripts in the source material as illustrative examples, but this question chiefly assesses your wider theoretical knowledge.

(Total for Question 12 is 25 marks)

Mark scheme · AE.T6 Language: Child Language Acquisition

Question 1

(a) B1 Names the process as (velar) fronting (oe)
(a) B1 Explains that the velar plosive /k/ is replaced by the alveolar plosive /t/, produced further forward in the mouth (oe)
(a) Answer: Velar fronting: the velar consonant /k/ in 'cow' is replaced by the alveolar consonant /t/, produced further forward in the mouth, giving 'tow'.
(b) B1 Names the process as stopping (oe)
(b) B1 Explains that the 'th' sounds (dental fricatives) in 'that' and 'thank you' are replaced by the stop consonants /d/ and /t/ (oe)
(b) B1 Explains that fricatives require more precise articulatory control (continuous, narrowly channelled airflow) than plosives, which are acquired earlier, so children substitute an earlier-acquired stop consonant (oe)
(b) Answer: Stopping: the 'th' sounds in 'that' and 'thank you' (dental fricatives) are replaced by the stop consonants /d/ and /t/, because fricatives require more precise articulatory control than plosives, which are acquired earlier.
(c) B1 Names the process as consonant cluster reduction (oe)
(c) B1 Identifies that the two-consonant clusters /tr/ and /dr/ are each simplified to a single consonant ('t' or 'd') (oe)
(c) B1 Explains that producing two consonants in sequence is articulatorily demanding before the relevant motor control has developed, so one element of the cluster is omitted (oe)
(c) Answer: Consonant cluster reduction: the two-consonant clusters /tr/ and /dr/ are simplified to single consonants ('t' and 'd'), because producing two consonants in sequence is articulatorily demanding before the relevant motor control has developed.
(d) B1 Explains that Aaliyah is not simply failing to pronounce words at random, but applying consistent, rule-governed simplification processes (oe)
(d) B1 Explains that each process (fronting, stopping, cluster reduction) recurs across different words, showing systematicity rather than isolated errors (oe)
(d) B1 Links this to the view that early phonology follows universal, predictable patterns of acquisition seen across many children (oe)
(d) B1 Explains that this suggests production lags behind perception/comprehension, since Aaliyah can presumably discriminate the correct adult sounds even though she cannot yet produce them (oe)
(d) Answer: The recurring, patterned nature of the processes (not random errors) shows that Aaliyah's phonology is rule-governed and predictable, and that production abilities lag behind the perceptual/comprehension abilities that let her recognise the adult-target forms.

Question 2

(a) B1 Correctly identifies one valid example with the overapplied rule named, e.g. 'goed' (lines B1, B5): regular past tense -ed overapplied to the irregular verb 'go' (oe)
(a) B1 Correctly identifies a second valid example with the overapplied rule named, e.g. 'gooses' (line B1): regular plural -s overapplied to the irregular plural 'geese' (oe)
(a) B1 Correctly identifies a third valid example with the overapplied rule named, e.g. 'builded' (line B7): regular past tense -ed overapplied to the irregular verb 'build' (oe); accept any three of goed, seed, gooses, runned, telled, builded
(a) Answer: For example: 'goed' (line B1) - regular past tense -ed overapplied to the irregular verb 'go'; 'gooses' (line B1) - regular plural -s overapplied to the irregular plural 'geese'; 'builded' (line B7) - regular past tense -ed overapplied to the irregular verb 'build'.
(b) B1 Identifies double marking/overgeneralisation of the superlative morpheme: 'best' is already an irregular superlative of 'good', and the regular superlative suffix -est has been added again (oe)
(b) B1 Explains this could not have been produced by simple imitation of adult speech, since adults do not say 'bestest' (oe)
(b) B1 Explains that a 'virtuous error' describes a mistake that reveals the child is actively applying an internalised grammatical rule, rather than making a random or careless error (oe)
(b) B1 Links this to evidence for an internal, generative grammar system (productive rule application) rather than rote learning (oe)
(b) Answer: Kai has overapplied the regular superlative rule (add -est) to an already-irregular superlative (best), producing 'bestest'. This is a 'virtuous error' because it could not be the result of imitating adult input (no adult says 'bestest'); it shows Kai has internalised and is productively applying a grammatical rule, which is evidence of active, rule-governed language learning rather than mere copying.
(c) B1 Identifies that standard English requires plural subject-verb agreement ('they were'), but Kai has used the singular form 'was' (oe)
(c) B1 Explains this shows subject-verb agreement for number is not yet fully/consistently acquired at this stage (oe)
(c) B1 Explains that such errors are typical and temporary, resolving as the child receives more input and continues to test grammatical hypotheses, without needing direct correction (oe)
(c) Answer: Kai has not yet consistently mastered subject-verb agreement for number (using 'was' instead of 'were' with a plural subject), which is typical of this developmental stage and is expected to resolve without direct correction as Kai's grammar develops further.

Question 3

(a) B1 Overextension: a child extends the use of a word beyond its adult target meaning to cover a wider range of referents (oe)
(a) B1 Underextension: a child restricts the use of a word to a narrower range of referents than the adult target meaning (oe)
(a) Answer: Overextension: using a word to refer to a wider range of things than its adult meaning allows. Underextension: using a word to refer to a narrower range of things than its adult meaning allows.
(b) B1 Identifies that 'doggy' is being used to refer to the sheep, which is not a dog, so its meaning has been extended beyond the correct referent (oe)
(b) B1 Identifies a plausible shared perceptual feature triggering the overextension, e.g. both are four-legged, furry farmyard animals of similar size (oe)
(b) B1 Explains that children often overextend on the basis of shared perceptual similarity when their semantic categories are not yet fully differentiated (oe)
(b) Answer: Aaliyah has extended 'doggy' to cover the sheep as well as dogs, most likely because the two animals share salient perceptual features (four legs, fur, similar size); at this stage her semantic categories for animals are not yet fully differentiated along adult-defined boundaries.
(c) B1 Identifies that Aaliyah restricts 'cup' to her own specific, familiar cup, rejecting the label for a different (but still valid) cup (oe)
(c) B1 Explains this is narrower than the adult category, which covers any object of that type/function (oe)
(c) B1 Explains that with further exposure to a wider range of exemplars, her category will broaden until it matches the adult semantic range (oe)
(c) Answer: Aaliyah restricts 'cup' to her own particular cup rather than the whole category of drinking vessels, which is narrower than the adult meaning. As she encounters more examples of cups in different contexts, her category will broaden to match the adult range.

Question 4

(a) B1 Identifies a valid instrumental example, e.g. "Can we go to the park again tomorrow? Please can we, please?" (line B9) (oe)
(a) B1 Justifies this as instrumental: language is being used to obtain something the child wants, a want-satisfying function (oe)
(a) B1 Identifies a valid interactional example, e.g. "Mummy, guess what!" (line B1) (oe)
(a) B1 Justifies this as interactional: language is being used to initiate/maintain social contact and engage the listener's attention (oe); accept other well-justified matches, e.g. an informative function for the narrative recount
(a) Answer: Instrumental: "Can we go to the park again tomorrow? Please can we, please?" (line B9) - used to get something Kai wants. Interactional: "Mummy, guess what!" (line B1) - used to engage Mum's attention and open the interaction.
(b) B1 Identifies an utterance doing double duty, e.g. "We goed to the park and I seed three gooses!" (line B1), which is both informative (reporting an event) and interactional (opening/sustaining the shared conversation) (oe)
(b) B1 Explains that as syntax becomes more complex (subordination, coordination), a single clause can encode more propositional content while still carrying an interpersonal/social purpose (oe)
(b) B1 Links this to a general developmental principle: functions that were separated into single-word/single-function utterances in infancy become combined or layered as grammatical and pragmatic competence increase (oe)
(b) B1 Notes this reflects growing communicative competence beyond Halliday's original model, which was designed to describe pre-linguistic/early one-word functions rather than complex, multi-clause speech (oe)
(b) Answer: By age 4;6, single utterances such as 'We goed to the park and I seed three gooses!' (line B1) combine an informative function (recounting events) with an interactional one (engaging Mum and inviting a response), showing that as grammar becomes more complex, functions that were once separate in one-word speech now merge within a single utterance, a level of pragmatic layering beyond Halliday's original infant-focused model.

Question 5

(a) M1 Correctly counts the total number of morphemes across the ten utterances as 15, treating the interjection 'uh oh' as a single unanalysable morpheme (oe, ft from a differently but consistently justified morpheme count)
(a) M1 Correctly states the number of utterances used as 10, and divides the total morpheme count by this figure (ft, dependent on the first M1)
(a) A1 cao MLU = 1.5 morphemes per utterance (accept awrt 1.5, or the correctly calculated ft value from an alternative but justified morpheme count)
(a) Answer: MLU = 15 morphemes / 10 utterances = 1.5 morphemes per utterance.
(b) B1 Identifies Brown's Stage I (MLU approximately 1.0 to 2.0) (oe, ft from the MLU calculated in part (a))
(b) B1 Describes one expected feature, e.g. predominantly one-word and early two-word utterances (oe)
(b) B1 Describes a second expected feature, e.g. telegraphic speech lacking grammatical morphemes such as articles, auxiliary verbs and inflectional endings (oe)
(b) Answer: Stage I (MLU approximately 1.0 to 2.0). Expected features: predominantly one-word and early two-word utterances; telegraphic speech lacking grammatical morphemes such as articles, auxiliary verbs and inflectional endings.
(c) B1 Identifies limitation 1: MLU only counts the number of morphemes, not their type or grammatical complexity (oe)
(c) B1 Explains limitation 1: two children with an identical MLU could still have very different grammatical repertoires (oe)
(c) B1 Identifies limitation 2: MLU becomes a less reliable indicator of development once it rises above about 4.0 (roughly the top of Brown's Stage V) (oe)
(c) B1 Explains limitation 2: utterance length increases more slowly than syntactic complexity in older children, so MLU understates their true grammatical competence beyond this point (oe)
(c) Answer: 1) MLU only counts the number of morphemes, not their type or complexity, so children with an identical MLU can have very different grammars. 2) MLU becomes unreliable as a marker of development once it rises above about 4.0 (roughly Brown's Stage V), because syntactic complexity continues to grow while utterance length levels off.

Question 6

(a) B1 Expansion, e.g. line A11 expands Aaliyah's 'tacto falled down' into 'the tractor fell down'; or line A14 expands 'more dink peas' into 'More drink please, here you go' (oe)
(a) B1 Recasting/correction, e.g. line A2 reformulates and corrects 'tow' as 'That's a cow, well done. Can you say cow?' (oe)
(a) B1 Elicitation questions to prompt further talk, e.g. line A5 'What does the dog say?'; accept positive reinforcement/praise (e.g. 'well done', line A2) as a further valid feature (oe)
(a) Answer: For example: expansion (line A11, 'the tractor fell down' expands 'tacto falled down'); recasting with correction (line A2, 'That's a cow... can you say cow?'); elicitation questions to prompt further talk (line A5, 'What does the dog say?').
(b) B1 Identifies Bruner's LASS as the social/interactional framework of support (scaffolding) that caregivers provide around the child, working alongside any innate mechanisms (oe)
(b) B1 Identifies scaffolding in the transcript, e.g. Dad breaking the interaction into a predictable routine (naming the animal, asking what sound it makes, lines A2, A5, A8) which Aaliyah can join with increasing independence (oe)
(b) B1 Identifies that Dad adjusts his support to Aaliyah's current level, e.g. accepting 'baa' (line A9) as a full turn and expanding her telegraphic utterances rather than demanding full grammar (oe)
(b) B1 Links this to Bruner's claim that such supportive routines/formats give the child repeated, structured exposure to grammatical patterns before being asked to produce them independently (oe)
(b) Answer: Dad provides a LASS by scaffolding the interaction into a predictable format (naming the animal, asking what sound it makes), by expanding Aaliyah's simplified utterances into full grammatical models, and by adjusting his contribution to her current level, repeatedly exposing her to correct forms within a supportive routine that Bruner argues is a necessary complement to any innate language capacity.

Question 7

(a) B1 Identifies that Transcript C is telegraphic: content words only, with no function words or inflections (e.g. C3 'mummy look', C4 'brick fall') (oe)
(a) B1 Identifies that Transcript D uses full grammatical sentences including auxiliary verbs, articles and inflections (e.g. D1 'I'm building a tower', D2 'It's falling down!') (oe)
(a) B1 Identifies that Transcript D shows subordination/multi-clause structure absent in Transcript C (e.g. D9 'I found it under the sofa') (oe)
(a) B1 Identifies productive use of grammatical morphemes in Transcript D not present in Transcript C, e.g. progressive -ing (D1, D2, D6), possessive/contracted forms (D1, D2, D8), superlative -est (D7) (oe)
(a) B1 Concludes this reflects a shift from Brown's Stage I (telegraphic, low MLU) towards a later stage where grammatical morphemes and complex clauses are established (oe)
(a) Answer: Transcript C is telegraphic (content words only, no function words or inflections), whereas Transcript D shows fully grammatical sentences with auxiliaries, articles, inflectional morphemes and subordinate clauses, reflecting a shift from Brown's Stage I towards a much later stage of grammatical development.
(b) M1 Correctly counts morphemes per utterance for D1 to D10 (6, 5, 5, 5, 5, 5, 6, 5, 6, 5), treating irregular past-tense/participle forms such as 'gone' and 'found' as single unsegmented morphemes (oe, ft from a differently but consistently justified count)
(b) M1 Correctly totals the morphemes as 53 across the 10 utterances (ft, dependent on the first M1)
(b) A1 cao MLU = 5.3 morphemes per utterance (accept awrt 5.3, or the correctly calculated ft value from an alternative but justified morpheme count)
(b) B1 Identifies that this MLU exceeds the top of Brown's Stage V range (approximately 3.75 to 4.5), so MLU alone is no longer precisely diagnostic at this point (oe, ft)
(b) B1 Justifies, using the qualitative features from part (a) (complex/compound sentences, full range of grammatical morphemes), that Aaliyah's grammar has developed beyond Stage V, into a period where syntactic complexity rather than utterance length is the more informative measure (oe)
(b) Answer: MLU (Transcript D) = 5.3 morphemes per utterance. This is above the top of Brown's Stage V range (approximately 3.75 to 4.5), so MLU alone is no longer a precise diagnostic here; combined with the qualitative evidence from part (a), complex/compound sentences and a full range of grammatical morphemes, this suggests Aaliyah's grammar has developed beyond Stage V, into a later period where syntactic complexity is the more informative measure.

Question 8

(a) B1 Explains Skinner's theory: children learn language through operant conditioning, imitating the language they hear and being reinforced for correct or approximate use (oe)
(a) B1 Identifies imitation in the transcript, e.g. Aaliyah attempting Dad's modelled forms (line A2 'cow' prompts her attempt 'tow'; line A8 'baa' is repeated back at line A9) (oe)
(a) B1 Identifies positive reinforcement, e.g. Dad's praise 'well done' (line A2) following a successful attempt, which Skinner would argue increases the likelihood the word is repeated (oe)
(a) B1 Identifies correction/extinction processes, e.g. the incorrect 'doggy' for the sheep (line A7) being corrected rather than reinforced (line A8), which should reduce that behaviour over time (oe)
(a) B1 Notes that under Skinner's model, language is essentially learned behaviour built up through repeated stimulus-response-reinforcement cycles, with no need for innate grammatical knowledge (oe)
(a) Answer: Skinner's behaviourist account holds that Aaliyah is learning language by imitating Dad's modelled words (e.g. attempting 'cow', repeating 'baa') and through reinforcement: Dad's praise ('well done') rewards successful attempts and makes repetition more likely, while his correction of errors (e.g. 'doggy' for the sheep) withholds reinforcement and should reduce that error over time, with all of the learning explained as stimulus-response conditioning, without needing any innate grammatical mechanism.
(b) L1 (1-2): Identifies a weakness of Skinner's theory in general terms, with little or no reference to transcript data.
(b) L2 (3-4): Identifies a valid weakness and links it to relevant transcript evidence, with some clear explanation of why the evidence challenges Skinner's theory.
(b) L3 (5): Gives a well-developed evaluation, clearly explaining a specific weakness of Skinner's theory and using precise, well-selected transcript evidence to show why imitation/reinforcement alone cannot account for it.

Question 9

(a) B1 Explains that Chomsky argues children are born with an innate, biological capacity for language, the Language Acquisition Device (LAD) (oe)
(a) B1 Explains that the LAD is said to contain knowledge of Universal Grammar, principles common to all human languages, allowing children to acquire the grammar of whichever language(s) they are exposed to (oe)
(a) B1 Explains the poverty of the stimulus argument: the language input children receive is limited, inconsistent and sometimes ungrammatical, yet children still reliably acquire complex grammatical systems (oe)
(a) B1 Explains that Chomsky argues this gap between impoverished input and eventual grammatical competence could not be explained by imitation/reinforcement alone, and requires an innate mechanism (oe)
(a) B1 Explains that the LAD is said to allow children to generate and understand an infinite number of novel sentences they have never heard before, not just reproduce memorised input (oe)
(a) Answer: Chomsky's nativist theory proposes children are born with an innate Language Acquisition Device (LAD) containing knowledge of Universal Grammar, principles shared by all human languages. The 'poverty of the stimulus' argument notes that the language children hear is limited and often imperfect, yet they still reliably acquire complex, rule-governed grammar and can generate infinite novel sentences, a gap Chomsky argues can only be explained by an innate biological language faculty, not by imitation and reinforcement alone.
(b) L1 (1-2): Basic comment on whether the errors support Chomsky's theory, with limited transcript reference.
(b) L2 (3-4): Clear link between specific transcript errors and Chomsky's theory, with some evaluation of the strength or limits of this support.
(b) L3 (5): Sophisticated, well-evidenced evaluation showing precisely how Kai's errors support the LAD/rule-generation argument, while also noting alternative or complicating explanations.

Question 10

(a) B1 Explains that Piaget argued language development is dependent on (and follows from) a child's general cognitive development, rather than being a separate, innate faculty (oe)
(a) B1 Explains that children build schemas, organised patterns of thought/knowledge built from experience, and that language emerges to express concepts already understood cognitively (oe)
(a) B1 Identifies object permanence (understanding that objects continue to exist when out of sight) as a key cognitive milestone Piaget linked to early word use (e.g. words like 'gone', 'there', 'more') (oe)
(a) B1 Explains that under this view a child cannot express a concept in language until they have first understood it cognitively, so language reflects rather than drives thought (oe)
(a) Answer: Piaget argued language depends on prior cognitive development: children build schemas (organised mental structures from their experience of the world), and can only express a concept in language once they have understood it cognitively. He linked early vocabulary (e.g. words like 'gone' or 'more') to cognitive milestones such as object permanence, the understanding that objects continue to exist even when out of sight.
(b) B1 Identifies that 'utoh' marks Aaliyah's recognition that something unexpected has happened to an object, it is no longer where it was (oe)
(b) B1 Links this to object permanence: Aaliyah understands the tractor still exists even though it has fallen out of its previous position, prompting her comment and her request to 'pick it up' (line A12) (oe)
(b) B1 Explains this would be interpreted as evidence that the relevant cognitive concept (object permanence) is already in place, and that the utterance expresses this pre-existing understanding rather than something language itself created (oe)
(b) B1 Notes a Piagetian would see this as consistent with the general claim that cognitive development precedes and enables the corresponding language (oe)
(b) Answer: A Piagetian would interpret 'utoh', paired with the request to pick the tractor up, as evidence that Aaliyah already understands the tractor still exists even though it has moved out of its usual position (object permanence); the utterance expresses a cognitive concept she has already grasped, consistent with Piaget's claim that cognition precedes and enables language.

Question 11

(a) B1 Explains that Bruner argues innate ability alone is not sufficient; children also need social interaction with supportive adults/caregivers, the Language Acquisition Support System (LASS) (oe)
(a) B1 Explains that caregivers provide scaffolding, adjusting their language and support to the child's current level and gradually withdrawing support as competence grows (oe)
(a) B1 Explains that Bruner used the term 'format' to describe predictable, repeated routines (e.g. picture-book naming games, mealtime routines) which give the child a stable structure in which to practise language (oe)
(a) B1 Explains that these formats provide repeated, structured exposure to the relationship between words and their referents/functions, supporting the child's own developing knowledge (oe)
(a) Answer: Bruner's social interactionist theory holds that innate capacity alone is not enough; children need social support from caregivers, the Language Acquisition Support System (LASS), who scaffold language learning, adjusting help to the child's level and withdrawing it as competence grows. He used 'format' to describe predictable routines (e.g. naming games) that give repeated, structured practice with language.
(b) B1 Identifies that Dad's turns in Transcript A follow a tight, repeated format (name the animal, ask its sound, lines A2, A5, A8), typical of scaffolding for a much younger, less linguistically able child (oe)
(b) B1 Identifies that Mum's turns in Transcript B are less rigidly structured but scaffold the narrative itself, e.g. open questions (lines B2, B4, B6) prompting elaboration (oe)
(b) B1 Explains that Mum's support is appropriate to Kai's more advanced stage: rather than modelling single words, she scaffolds extended discourse/narrative structure, encouraging Kai to sequence and elaborate events (oe)
(b) B1 Concludes Transcript A shows the more classic, tightly structured 'format' originally described by Bruner, while Transcript B shows scaffolding adapted to a later stage of narrative/discourse development (oe)
(b) Answer: Dad's turns in Transcript A form a classic tight 'format' (name the animal, ask its sound) suited to a younger, less linguistically developed child, whereas Mum's turns in Transcript B scaffold the higher-level skill of narrative construction through open prompts ('What were they doing?', 'What else did you do?'). Transcript A therefore shows the more classic Bruner-style format, while Transcript B shows scaffolding adapted to support a later stage of discourse development.

Question 12

Level 0 (0): Nothing worthy of credit.
Level 1 (1-5): Simple, generalised assertions about theories of acquisition; terminology largely absent or inaccurate; no coherent line of argument.
Level 2 (6-10): Some relevant knowledge of at least two theoretical positions, largely descriptive rather than evaluative; basic terminology used; limited discussion of the debate.
Level 3 (11-15): Clear knowledge of at least three of behaviourist, nativist, cognitive and interactionist positions; a reasonable attempt to discuss the given view, with accurate terminology, though development may be uneven across the response.
Level 4 (16-20): Detailed, well-substantiated discussion of the given view, integrating secure theoretical knowledge with a clear, sustained line of argument reaching a supported conclusion; terminology used accurately and consistently.
Level 5 (21-25): Sophisticated, wide-ranging discussion synthesising theoretical knowledge into a coherent, convincing argument, showing awareness of the limitations of individual theories and of competing interpretations; assured, precise use of terminology throughout.
Indicative content:
- Outline of Skinner's behaviourist theory (imitation and reinforcement) as the input-driven explanation the quotation broadly supports.
- Outline of Bruner's social interactionist theory (LASS, scaffolding, formats) as a more nuanced input/interaction-driven account, distinct from pure behaviourism.
- Outline of Chomsky's nativist theory (LAD, Universal Grammar, poverty of the stimulus) as the key challenge to the quotation's view.
- Use of 'virtuous errors'/overgeneralisation (e.g. 'goed', 'gooses', 'bestest') as evidence often cited for innate rule application, difficult to explain by input alone.
- Consideration of Piaget's cognitive theory as a third position: development is neither purely input-driven nor purely a dedicated linguistic innate mechanism, but dependent on general cognition.
- Reference to hybrid/usage-based positions (e.g. Tomasello) which argue grammar emerges from powerful general learning mechanisms operating on rich social input, without requiring a dedicated innate grammar module, a middle ground between the extremes.
- Evaluation of the poverty of the stimulus argument itself, some linguists dispute how impoverished child input really is, given caregivers' use of child-directed speech, expansions and recasts.
- A supported conclusion, e.g. that most current theory favours an interactionist position combining innate predispositions with essential social input, rather than either extreme alone; credit any well-argued alternative conclusion provided it is substantiated with secure theoretical knowledge.

Language: Child Language Acquisition - Worksheets, Questions and Revision