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A-Level · Psychology

PSY.APP3 The Behaviourist Approach: Operant Conditioning and Skinner's Research

AQA 7182 · Calculators not allowed · about 60 minutes

Total Marks

Name: _______________________________ Date: ____ / ____ / ______

Answer ALL questions. Show all your working.

Define 'operant conditioning' as it is used in the study of learning and behaviour. Name the core idea about how behaviour changes.

Define operant conditioning.

(Total for Question 1 is 2 marks)

Outline what is meant by positive reinforcement in operant conditioning and give a brief example involving a pet being trained to sit.

Outline positive reinforcement and give a pet example.

(Total for Question 2 is 2 marks)

Outline what is meant by negative reinforcement in operant conditioning and give a brief everyday example such as removing an annoying sound.

Outline negative reinforcement and give an everyday example.

(Total for Question 3 is 2 marks)

Outline what is meant by punishment in operant conditioning and give a brief example involving a school setting where a sanction is used to reduce behaviour.

Outline punishment and give a school example.

(Total for Question 4 is 2 marks)

Scenario: In a Skinner box experiment, a pigeon pecks a lit key and a food pellet is delivered immediately. Classify this as positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement or punishment. Explain your classification in one sentence.

Classify pigeon peck -> food pellet.

(Total for Question 5 is 1 mark)

Scenario: A child tidies their toys to stop being told off by a parent. Classify the consequence as positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement or punishment and give one reason.

Classify tidying to stop being told off.

(Total for Question 6 is 1 mark)

Scenario: A student cheats in an exam and is expelled when discovered. Classify the consequence as positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement or punishment and give one reason.

Classify expulsion after cheating.

(Total for Question 7 is 1 mark)

Identify which schedule of reinforcement is described: a behaviour is reinforced every time it occurs, or a behaviour is reinforced on some occasions only. Name both schedules and give a short consequence for persistence of behaviour.

Identify continuous versus partial reinforcement.

(Total for Question 8 is 2 marks)

Describe B.F. Skinner's general procedure and key findings from his operant conditioning research using rats or pigeons in a Skinner box. Include how reinforcement was delivered and the main conclusion about behaviour being shaped.

Describe Skinner's procedure and findings.

(Total for Question 9 is 6 marks)

Identify which schedule of reinforcement is being used in this example: A slot machine pays out on average once every 50 plays but the exact number of plays between wins varies. Name the schedule and give one reason why gambling behaviour is hard to extinguish.

Classify slot machine schedule and explain persistence.

(Total for Question 10 is 3 marks)

Briefly identify one real-world application of operant conditioning that uses reinforcement to change behaviour, naming the application and its basic mechanism.

Identify one application of operant conditioning.

(Total for Question 11 is 1 mark)

Explain two limitations of operant conditioning as an explanation of human behaviour. For each limitation, give the implication for the usefulness of the theory.

Explain two limitations of operant conditioning.

(Total for Question 12 is 4 marks)

Discuss the strengths and limitations of operant conditioning as an explanation of behaviour. In your answer, refer to real-world applications such as token economies and to theoretical criticisms such as the role of cognition and free will. You should include both supporting evidence and counterarguments.

(Total for Question 13 is 12 marks)

Mark scheme · PSY.APP3 The Behaviourist Approach: Operant Conditioning and Skinner's Research

Question 1

B1 states operant conditioning is learning through the consequences of behaviour oe
B1 states behaviour is strengthened by reinforcement or weakened by punishment oe
Answer: Operant conditioning is learning in which behaviour is shaped by its consequences; behaviours that are reinforced are more likely to occur again and behaviours that are punished are less likely to occur.

Question 2

B1 states positive reinforcement is receiving a reward after a behaviour which increases the likelihood of the behaviour recurring oe
B1 gives an example, e.g. giving a dog a treat when it sits oe
Answer: Positive reinforcement is when a reward is presented after a behaviour, increasing the chance the behaviour will be repeated; for example, giving a dog a treat when it sits.

Question 3

B1 states negative reinforcement is the removal of an aversive stimulus after a behaviour which increases the likelihood of that behaviour recurring oe
B1 gives an example, e.g. fastening a seatbelt to stop a car alarm, or turning off an alarm clock oe
Answer: Negative reinforcement is the removal of an unpleasant stimulus after a behaviour, which increases the chance the behaviour will occur again; for example, fastening a seatbelt to stop a car alarm.

Question 4

B1 states punishment is the presentation of an aversive stimulus or removal of a positive stimulus to reduce the likelihood of a behaviour recurring oe
B1 gives an example, e.g. a pupil given detention for being disruptive, reducing the disruptive behaviour oe
Answer: Punishment is applying an unpleasant consequence or taking away a positive one to reduce a behaviour; for example, giving a pupil detention to discourage disruptive behaviour.

Question 5

B1 positive reinforcement: a reward (food) is given after the behaviour, increasing the likelihood of the pecking behaviour oe
Answer: Positive reinforcement, because the peck is followed by a food reward which increases the chance the pigeon will peck the key again.

Question 6

B1 negative reinforcement: an aversive stimulus (being told off) is removed following the behaviour, so the behaviour is more likely to recur oe
Answer: Negative reinforcement, because the child removes the aversive stimulus (the reprimand) by tidying, so tidying is reinforced and more likely to recur.

Question 7

B1 punishment: presentation of an aversive consequence (expulsion) following the behaviour to reduce the likelihood of cheating recurring oe
Answer: Punishment, because the expulsion is an aversive consequence intended to reduce the likelihood of cheating in the future.

Question 8

B1 continuous reinforcement: behaviour is reinforced every time it occurs oe
B1 partial (intermittent) reinforcement: behaviour is reinforced only on some occasions; partial reinforcement typically produces greater resistance to extinction oe
Answer: Continuous reinforcement gives a reward every time a behaviour occurs. Partial or intermittent reinforcement rewards only some responses, and behaviours on partial schedules tend to persist longer and resist extinction.

Question 9

M1 describes the Skinner box setup: a small chamber containing a lever or key, a dispenser for food pellets, and mechanisms for delivering stimuli and recording behaviour oe
M1 states that animals were placed in the box and learned to perform an action, such as pressing a lever or pecking a key, to obtain a reward oe
M1 describes reinforcement delivery: food pellet presented immediately after the response as positive reinforcement, or an aversive stimulus removed as negative reinforcement oe
A1 states key finding that behaviour that is reinforced increases in frequency, and that schedules of reinforcement affect how quickly behaviour is acquired and how resistant it is to extinction oe
A1 mentions that punishment decreases behaviour but does not eliminate the tendency to perform it and may produce side effects such as avoidance oe
A1 concludes Skinner argued that behaviour is shaped by its consequences, supporting a behaviourist account of learning oe
Answer: Skinner used a controlled chamber with a lever or key and a food dispenser. Animals learned to press the lever or peck the key to receive food pellets, demonstrating positive reinforcement; removal of aversive events also reinforced behaviour as negative reinforcement. He found reinforced behaviours increased in frequency, partial reinforcement produced greater resistance to extinction, and punishment tended to suppress but not necessarily eliminate behaviour. Skinner concluded behaviour is shaped by its consequences.

Question 10

M1 identifies variable ratio schedule (reinforcement after an unpredictable number of responses) cao
A1 explains that the unpredictability maintains high response rates oe
A1 explains that variable ratio schedules produce high resistance to extinction, which helps explain why gambling behaviour persists oe
Answer: This is a variable ratio schedule: reinforcement occurs after an unpredictable number of responses. Because rewards are unpredictable, response rates stay high and behaviour shows strong resistance to extinction, explaining the persistence of gambling.

Question 11

B1 identifies a valid application, e.g. token economy systems in prisons or psychiatric hospitals, where tokens are given for desirable behaviour and exchanged for privileges oe
Answer: Token economy systems in institutions, where desirable behaviours are reinforced with tokens that can be exchanged for rewards.

Question 12

M1 identifies a limitation, such as it ignores internal mental processes/cognition oe
A1 explains implication, e.g. cannot fully explain learning that occurs without reinforcement or insight learning, reducing its explanatory power for complex human behaviour oe
M1 identifies a second limitation, such as it underestimates the role of free will and individual differences or it may rely on extrinsic rewards that do not transfer to intrinsic motivation oe
A1 explains implication, e.g. behaviour changed by external rewards may not persist when rewards stop and the theory may not account for motivated, voluntary actions, limiting its practical long-term usefulness oe
Answer: Limitation 1: Operant conditioning downplays internal mental processes. This limits its ability to explain learning that involves insight or internal planning, reducing its explanatory power for complex human behaviours. Limitation 2: It underestimates free will and individual differences and often relies on extrinsic rewards. This means behaviours learned through external reinforcement may not persist when rewards are removed, and the approach may not predict voluntary or internally motivated actions well.

Question 13

Level 4 (10-12): Knowledge of operant conditioning is accurate and detailed. Discussion is thorough and balanced, evaluating strengths and limitations with well developed chains of reasoning that include empirical support and implications. Real-world applications and theoretical criticisms are used interactively to support judgements. Specialist terminology is used effectively and the answer is coherent and well structured.
Level 3 (7-9): Knowledge is clear with some detail. Discussion includes strengths and limitations with some evaluation, supported by evidence or examples. Application to real-world examples and reference to cognition or free will is present but may be less fully developed. The answer is organised and mostly clear.
Level 2 (4-6): Knowledge is present but limited. Discussion is basic or one sided, with limited evidence and few developed implications. Reference to applications or criticisms may be brief or superficial. Structure and use of terminology are inconsistent.
Level 1 (1-3): Very limited knowledge. Answer may be a list of points with little or no development. Evaluation is minimal or missing. Specialist terminology is largely absent and the answer lacks clarity.
Level 0 (0): No creditable content.
Indicative content:
- AO1: Operant conditioning defined as learning through consequences: positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement and punishment, and the role of schedules of reinforcement (continuous, fixed ratio, variable ratio, fixed interval, variable interval).
- AO1: Skinner's experimental work with rats and pigeons in the Skinner box demonstrated that behaviours followed by reinforcement increase in frequency, and that partial reinforcement schedules produce greater resistance to extinction.
- AO3 Strength: Useful real-world applications such as token economies in prisons, psychiatric units and schools where tokens reinforce desirable behaviour; evidence of practical behaviour change supports the applied value of the approach.
- AO3 Strength: Operant principles underpin many behaviour-change programmes and technologies, for example behaviour modification, education reward systems and aspects of behavioural therapies; these have measurable outcomes, showing predictive and practical utility.
- AO3 Limitation: The approach ignores internal mental processes and cognition; learning that involves insight, latent learning or goal-directed planning is not easily explained by simple reinforcement contingencies, reducing explanatory completeness.
- AO3 Limitation: Emphasis on external rewards may undermine intrinsic motivation; behaviours learnt for extrinsic rewards may not generalise or persist when rewards are removed, limiting long-term effectiveness.
- AO3 Limitation: Ethical and practical problems with punishment, including side effects such as avoidance, aggression or conditioned fear, reduce the desirability of punishment as a behaviour-change tool.
- AO3 Counterargument: Some cognitive features can be integrated with operant accounts, for example by recognising that organisms may form expectations about consequences, and modern applied work often combines reinforcement with cognitive strategies.
- AO3 Balance and judgement: Conclude by weighing strong practical utility and empirical support against theoretical limitations and ethical concerns, and suggest operant conditioning is valuable for many applied contexts but is not a complete explanation of all human learning and behaviour.

The Behaviourist Approach: Operant Conditioning and Skinner's Research - Worksheets, Questions and Revision