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A-Level · Psychology

PSY.OPT24 Explanations for Nicotine and Gambling Addiction, and Reducing Addiction

AQA 7182 · Calculators not allowed · about 90 minutes

Total Marks

Name: _______________________________ Date: ____ / ____ / ______

Answer the short questions in clear sentences for full credit. Spend about 60 minutes on the short and applied questions, and 30 minutes on the 16-mark essay. At least three answers should be written in full sentences.

Outline the role of dopamine in the brain reward pathway as it relates to nicotine addiction, in the context of neurochemistry.

(Total for Question 1 is 2 marks)

Explain briefly how nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs) contribute to dependence on nicotine in the brain neurochemistry explanation.

(Total for Question 2 is 3 marks)

Outline learning theory as applied to smoking behaviour, including the role of classical conditioning in cue reactivity for a smoker in everyday settings.

(Total for Question 3 is 4 marks)

Outline how partial or variable reinforcement schedules explain persistent gambling behaviour, naming the schedule most relevant to gambling machines.

(Total for Question 4 is 3 marks)

Outline the gambler's fallacy as a cognitive explanation for errors in gamblers' thinking.

(Total for Question 5 is 2 marks)

Outline the illusion of control as a cognitive bias relevant to gambling addiction.

(Total for Question 6 is 3 marks)

Outline Nicotine Replacement Therapy (NRT) as a drug-based method for reducing nicotine addiction, naming two common delivery forms.

(Total for Question 7 is 3 marks)

Case scenario for application. Callum is a 45 year old who smokes 20 cigarettes per day and has tried quitting several times but relapses when stressed. He reports that having a coffee and stepping outside with colleagues is an automatic trigger to smoke. The clinic offers a combined programme of nicotine replacement therapy delivered by patch and weekly group sessions teaching coping strategies for cue exposure and stress management.

Explain how this combined programme aims to reduce Callum's smoking. Refer to both the pharmacological and behavioural components and link each to mechanisms discussed in the specification.

(Total for Question 8 is 6 marks)

Outline aversion therapy as a behavioural method to reduce addictive behaviour, and give one example of how it might be used in treating nicotine dependence.

(Total for Question 9 is 4 marks)

Explain covert sensitisation as a cognitive-behavioural method for reducing addictive behaviours, and outline how it differs from overt aversion therapy.

(Total for Question 10 is 6 marks)

Outline the Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB) and a stages-of-change model briefly, and evaluate how these cognitive approaches could be used to design interventions to reduce gambling addiction.

(a)Outline the main components of the Theory of Planned Behaviour and the stages-of-change model (also called the transtheoretical model).(4)

(b)Evaluate how TPB and stages-of-change could inform interventions for gambling addiction, giving strengths and weaknesses.(4)

(Total for Question 11 is 8 marks)

Discuss explanations for gambling addiction. In your answer, consider learning theory and cognitive explanations, refer to empirical evidence where relevant, and evaluate how well these accounts explain the development and persistence of gambling addiction.

(Total for Question 12 is 16 marks)

Mark scheme · PSY.OPT24 Explanations for Nicotine and Gambling Addiction, and Reducing Addiction

Question 1

B1 states that nicotine increases dopamine release in the mesolimbic reward pathway, including the nucleus accumbens oe
B1 links increased dopamine to reinforcing pleasurable effects that encourage continued smoking oe
Answer: Nicotine stimulates dopamine release in the mesolimbic reward pathway, including the nucleus accumbens, producing pleasurable reinforcement that increases the likelihood of continued smoking.

Question 2

M1 identifies that nicotine binds to nicotinic acetylcholine receptors in the brain oe
A1 explains that repeated stimulation leads to receptor upregulation or changes in sensitivity, contributing to tolerance oe
A1 explains that absence of nicotine produces withdrawal because normal receptor signalling is altered, motivating further use oe
Answer: Nicotine binds to nicotinic acetylcholine receptors; repeated exposure alters receptor numbers and sensitivity producing tolerance, and when nicotine is absent withdrawal symptoms occur because normal signalling is disrupted, which motivates further use.

Question 3

M1 states that learning theory includes classical and operant conditioning explanations for smoking behaviour oe
A1 explains classical conditioning: neutral cues (e.g. coffee, social situations) become associated with smoking and elicit craving as conditioned responses oe
A1 explains operant reinforcement: nicotine's rewarding effects positively reinforce smoking and negative reinforcement occurs when smoking relieves withdrawal symptoms oe
B1 mentions cue reactivity as a practical consequence: cues trigger craving and increase relapse risk oe
Answer: Learning theory explains smoking by classical conditioning, where neutral cues like coffee or social settings become linked to smoking and trigger cravings, and by operant reinforcement, where nicotine rewards and relief from withdrawal reinforce smoking; cue reactivity means environmental triggers provoke craving and relapse.

Question 4

M1 states that partial reinforcement delivers rewards only some of the time rather than every time oe
A1 explains that a variable ratio schedule, where reward follows an unpredictable number of responses, produces high response rates and resistance to extinction oe
B1 identifies variable ratio reinforcement as typical of slot machines and other gambling devices oe
Answer: Partial reinforcement gives rewards only sometimes; a variable ratio schedule, where wins occur unpredictably after a varying number of plays, produces persistent high rates of play and resistance to extinction and is typical of slot machines.

Question 5

B1 states that the gambler's fallacy is the belief that past random events affect the probability of future independent events oe
B1 gives an example: believing a roulette wheel is 'due' to land on red after a run of blacks oe
Answer: The gambler's fallacy is the mistaken belief that past random outcomes change the chances of future independent events, for example thinking a roulette wheel is 'due' to land on red after several blacks.

Question 6

M1 identifies illusion of control as the belief that one can influence or control chance outcomes more than is realistic oe
A1 explains how this bias can lead gamblers to overestimate their skill or influence, for example throwing dice 'harder' to get a certain outcome oe
B1 links this to persistence of gambling behaviour despite low probabilities of winning oe
Answer: The illusion of control is the biased belief that one can influence chance outcomes, leading gamblers to overestimate their skill or influence and to persist in gambling despite low probabilities of winning.

Question 7

M1 states that NRT supplies controlled doses of nicotine to reduce withdrawal symptoms and cravings oe
A1 names two common delivery forms, for example nicotine gum, patches, lozenges, inhalators or nasal spray oe
B1 explains that NRT aims to reduce dependence by easing withdrawal while behavioural support helps cessation oe
Answer: NRT provides controlled nicotine doses to reduce withdrawal and cravings; common forms include nicotine patches and gum, and NRT is used alongside behavioural support to help people stop smoking.

Question 8

M1 explains the pharmacological component: patch provides steady nicotine to reduce withdrawal and cravings, lowering physiological drive to smoke oe
A1 links this to receptor-level effects/tolerance withdrawal, e.g. reducing withdrawal symptoms that would otherwise motivate smoking oe
M1 explains the behavioural component: group sessions teach coping strategies such as cue exposure, avoidance, or stress management and coping skills oe
A1 links cue exposure/management to breaking conditioned associations between cues like coffee and smoking, reducing cue reactivity oe
M1 explains how combining approaches addresses both physiological and learned/psychological triggers, reducing relapse risk oe
A1 applies this to Callum specifically, e.g. patch reduces urges when stressed and sessions teach him to cope with coffee/colleague cues so he is less likely to relapse in those situations oe
Answer: The nicotine patch provides steady nicotine to reduce withdrawal symptoms and physiological craving, addressing receptor-level dependence and tolerance, while weekly group sessions teach coping strategies and cue-exposure or avoidance to weaken the conditioned association between coffee/colleague breaks and smoking; together the pharmacological and behavioural elements reduce both the biological drive and the learned triggers that cause Callum to relapse when stressed.

Question 9

M1 states that aversion therapy pairs the addictive behaviour with an unpleasant stimulus to produce an avoidance response oe
A1 explains the classical conditioning basis: the target behaviour becomes associated with an aversive consequence and so is less likely to occur oe
A1 gives a plausible example for nicotine, e.g. using a mild emetic or unpleasant-tasting spray when the client smokes, or rapid smoking followed by nausea induction oe
B1 notes briefly a limitation or ethical concern, such as discomfort or acceptability to patients oe
Answer: Aversion therapy pairs the addictive behaviour with an unpleasant stimulus so the behaviour elicits an avoidance response via classical conditioning; for nicotine this could involve rapid smoking followed by an emetic or an unpleasant taste when smoking to create nausea, but such techniques raise ethical and acceptability concerns.

Question 10

M1 defines covert sensitisation: a therapy where the client imagines unpleasant consequences of the addictive behaviour to create negative associations oe
A1 explains the process: guided imagery is used to pair the behaviour with adverse imagined outcomes until the urge decreases oe
M1 compares with overt aversion: covert sensitisation uses imagination rather than actual physical aversive stimuli oe
A1 explains a benefit: it avoids physical harm and ethical issues associated with inducing real discomfort, and may be more acceptable oe
M1 identifies a limitation: relies on vivid imagination and client motivation, so may be less effective for some individuals oe
A1 explains why this matters: those unable to engage with imagery may not form strong aversive associations, reducing treatment efficacy oe
Answer: Covert sensitisation uses guided imagery to have clients imagine unpleasant consequences of the addictive behaviour, creating negative associations and reducing urges; unlike overt aversion it does not use real physical aversive stimuli, which reduces ethical concerns, but it depends on the client's ability to vividly imagine and engage, which limits effectiveness for some people.

Question 11

(a) M1 states TPB components: attitude toward the behaviour, subjective norms, and perceived behavioural control oe
(a) A1 explains that intention to change is predicted by these three components oe
(a) M1 states stages-of-change stages, e.g. precontemplation, contemplation, preparation, action, maintenance oe
(a) A1 explains that interventions can be matched to stage, since readiness to change varies across individuals oe
(a) Answer: TPB holds that behaviour is predicted by intention, which is influenced by attitude, subjective norms and perceived behavioural control; the stages-of-change model proposes sequential stages such as precontemplation, contemplation, preparation, action and maintenance, implying interventions should match the person's readiness to change.
(b) M1 identifies a strength, e.g. TPB helps target attitudes and perceived control so interventions can change beliefs about gambling and increase perceived ability to refuse urges oe
(b) A1 explains why this matters, e.g. changing social norms and enhancing self-efficacy can reduce intentions and therefore reduce gambling behaviour oe
(b) M1 identifies a limitation, e.g. TPB and stages models focus on cognitive processes and intention but may not fully address strong addictive urges driven by neurochemistry or reinforcement schedules oe
(b) A1 explains consequence, e.g. interventions based only on changing intentions may fail if physiological craving or variable reinforcement keep behaviour going, so multi-component approaches may be needed oe
(b) Answer: TPB allows interventions to target attitudes, norms and perceived control to reduce intentions to gamble, and the stages model encourages tailoring support to readiness to change, which can increase uptake and success; however both approaches may underplay biological and reinforcement factors that sustain gambling, so cognitive interventions are most effective when combined with behavioural or pharmacological strategies.

Question 12

Level 4 (13-16): Knowledge of learning and cognitive explanations for gambling addiction is accurate, detailed and well organised. Evaluation is thorough, balanced and explicit, considering empirical support, methodological issues and real-world applicability. Material from both explanations is used interactively to develop a coherent judgement about their explanatory power. Specialist terminology is used effectively.
Level 3 (9-12): Knowledge of the explanations is sound with reasonable detail. Evaluation is present and relevant, with some balance between supporting and challenging evidence. There is some integration of material and a conclusion, though treatment of competing explanations or methodological issues may be limited. Terminology is used, mostly appropriately.
Level 2 (5-8): Basic knowledge of learning and cognitive explanations is present but limited or partially inaccurate. Evaluation is superficial or one sided. Application to empirical evidence or real-world implications is limited. The answer may lack coherence and specialist terms are used inconsistently.
Level 1 (1-4): Very limited content, mostly descriptive or irrelevant. Little or no evaluation. Little evidence of understanding of gambling addiction. Specialist terminology is largely absent or misused.
Level 0 (0): No creditable content.
Indicative content:
- AO1: Learning theory explanations include operant conditioning with partial and variable reinforcement schedules, especially variable ratio schedules used by gambling machines that produce high response rates and resistance to extinction; classical conditioning explains cue reactivity when environmental cues become associated with wins and trigger gambling urges.
- AO1: Cognitive explanations focus on biased thinking in gamblers, including the gambler's fallacy, the illusion of control and selective recall of wins, and erroneous beliefs about randomness and probability that sustain persistence despite losses.
- AO1: Learning theory mechanisms: positive reinforcement from wins, negative reinforcement through escape from negative feelings, and the role of intermittent reward in maintaining behaviour.
- AO3: Empirical support for learning theory includes laboratory studies showing variable ratio schedules produce persistent responding, and cue-reactivity studies where cues elicit physiological arousal and craving; however many lab tasks lack external validity compared with real gambling environments.
- AO3: Support for cognitive accounts includes research showing problem gamblers display stronger cognitive biases on tasks and in self-report, and that cognitive interventions such as cognitive restructuring can reduce gambling behaviour, suggesting causal relevance of distorted cognitions.
- AO3: Limitations of learning theory: does not easily explain the initial development of biased cognitions or why some people exposed to the same reinforcement schedules do not develop addiction; individual differences and genetic or neurobiological vulnerability also matter.
- AO3: Limitations of cognitive theory: cognitive distortions may be partly rationalisations after losses rather than primary causes; some evidence is correlational and reverse causality is possible, for example repeated losses could increase biased thinking.
- AO3: Integrative perspectives and real-world application: combined models drawing on learning and cognitive factors explain complementary aspects, and effective interventions often combine behavioural measures (limits, removal of cues), cognitive therapy, and self-exclusion or financial controls.
- AO3: Consideration of methodology: many studies are correlational or use self-report, samples often clinical or help-seeking so generalisability is limited; experimental manipulations can show causal effects for certain mechanisms but often in artificial settings.
- AO3: Conclusion might argue that learning and cognitive explanations together provide a powerful account of maintenance and persistence of gambling addiction, while neurobiological and individual-difference factors explain vulnerability, so a multi-factorial model is most convincing.

Explanations for Nicotine and Gambling Addiction, and Reducing Addiction - Worksheets, Questions and Revision