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A-Level · Sociology

GSOC.AL23 Class, Gender, Ethnicity and Age: Patterns of Religiosity

AQA 7192 · Calculators not allowed · about 75 minutes

Total Marks

Name: _______________________________ Date: ____ / ____ / ______

Answer ALL questions. For short answers one or two sentences are sufficient. For the final 12-mark question write in full sentences and include named studies where possible. Spend about 75 minutes in total.

Which one of the following best describes Max Weber's 'theodicy of disprivilege' as applied to social class and religiosity?

A) Religion offers explanations that justify the position of wealthy groups
B) Religion provides comfort and promise of rewards in the afterlife to disadvantaged groups
C) Religion causes people to become wealthier through moral discipline
D) Religion is only a private matter with no social effects

(Total for Question 1 is 1 mark)

Define what sociologists mean by 'religiosity' when studying class, gender, ethnicity and age patterns of belief and practice in Britain.

(Total for Question 2 is 2 marks)

Identify and explain two ways class can influence patterns of religiosity in the UK today.

(Total for Question 3 is 4 marks)

Identify and explain two patterns of religiosity linked to ethnicity in the UK.

(Total for Question 4 is 4 marks)

Describe one way in which age affects patterns of religiosity in contemporary Britain.

(Total for Question 5 is 3 marks)

Item A: Survey results from a hypothetical local survey of 800 adults in a British town in 2025. 40% report attending a place of worship at least monthly; 30% identify as 'strongly religious'; 20% are members of a formal religious organisation; 60% say religion is important in maintaining cultural identity for some ethnic groups. Using Item A and your own knowledge, identify two limitations of these self-reported measures of religiosity.

(Total for Question 6 is 4 marks)

Explain two ways Davie uses the idea of 'vicarious religion' or 'believing without belonging' to account for patterns of religiosity in modern societies.

(Total for Question 7 is 4 marks)

State one finding commonly reported by researchers about gender and religiosity in Britain.

(Total for Question 8 is 2 marks)

Name four social-group patterns of religiosity that sociologists often study, as applied to Britain in the 21st century.

(Total for Question 9 is 4 marks)

A short case: Item B describes two women of similar class and income. Priya is active in a local mosque and attends weekly; Erin prays privately but rarely attends organised services. Using Item B and your sociological knowledge, analyse two reasons why women are often found to be more religious than men. Item B: Priya, 46, second-generation immigrant, attends mosque weekly and helps with community events; Erin, 44, born in Britain to non-religious parents, prays privately at home on occasion but does not join a congregation.

Using Item B and your own knowledge, analyse two reasons why women are often found to be more religious than men.

(Total for Question 10 is 6 marks)

Describe two differences between formal religious membership statistics and measures of private belief when studying religiosity.

(Total for Question 11 is 4 marks)

State one way in which Heelas and Bruce's work on the spiritual market differs from a more traditional view of class and religion.

(Total for Question 12 is 2 marks)

Compare two explanations for why older people are more likely to attend religious services than younger people, using sociological ideas about cohort effects and life-cycle effects.

(Total for Question 13 is 4 marks)

State one finding from Modood's research on ethnicity and religiosity in Britain.

(Total for Question 14 is 2 marks)

Explain one reason why working-class people might be more attracted to high-commitment religious groups than middle-class people.

(Total for Question 15 is 2 marks)

Essay question on explanations for social-group differences in religiosity: evaluate socialisation and cultural identity explanations against structural and cohort/life-cycle accounts, using named studies where possible.

Discuss how far sociologists would agree that differences in religiosity between social groups are mainly the result of socialisation and cultural identity, rather than structural factors such as class-based economic disadvantage or life-cycle effects. In your answer use named studies and reach a supported conclusion.

(Total for Question 16 is 12 marks)

Mark scheme · GSOC.AL23 Class, Gender, Ethnicity and Age: Patterns of Religiosity

Question 1

B1 B (religion provides comfort and promise of rewards in the afterlife to disadvantaged groups)
Answer: B

Question 2

B1 identifies religiosity as the degree of religious belief, practice and involvement, including worship attendance and private belief (oe)
B1 development, e.g. this can include formal membership, frequency of attendance and strength of personal belief
Answer: Religiosity is the degree of religious belief, practice and involvement, including worship attendance and private belief; it covers formal membership, frequency of attendance and strength of personal belief.

Question 3

B1 identifies one correct way, e.g. working-class attraction to sects or high-commitment groups
B1 explains why, e.g. Weber's theodicy of disprivilege suggests religion offers comfort and community to those facing economic hardship
B1 identifies a second correct way, e.g. middle-class interest in New Age spirituality or market-style individual spirituality
B1 explains why, e.g. Heelas and Bruce note middle-class consumers often prefer personal spiritual practices rather than formal church attendance
Answer: Working-class people may be attracted to sects or high-commitment groups that promise comfort and reward, as Weber's theodicy of disprivilege suggests; middle-class people are more likely to engage in New Age or consumer-style spirituality, as Heelas and Bruce note, because they can afford personalised spiritual services and value individual choice.

Question 4

B1 identifies one pattern, e.g. some minority ethnic groups show higher levels of religious practice and attendance
B1 explains why, e.g. Modood and others argue religion can help maintain cultural identity and community support among migrants
B1 identifies a second pattern, e.g. differences exist between and within minority groups, not a single uniform pattern
B1 explains why, e.g. generational change, ethnicity, and the role of religion in community life mean religiosity varies by age and acculturation
Answer: Some minority ethnic groups show higher religious practice and attendance, because religion helps maintain cultural identity and community support (Modood); but there are important differences between and within groups, since generational change and acculturation affect levels of religiosity.

Question 5

B1 identifies a genuine pattern, e.g. older people attend religious services more often than younger people
B1 development, e.g. congregations are often ageing, with fewer young regular attenders
B1 further development or example, e.g. Voas and Crockett argue this is partly a cohort effect, with younger cohorts less religious
Answer: Older people generally attend religious services more than younger people, so congregations tend to be ageing; Voas and Crockett argue this reflects cohort change, with younger generations being less religious.

Question 6

B1 identifies one limitation, e.g. social desirability or exaggeration in self-reporting
B1 explains or gives example drawn from Item A, e.g. 'strongly religious' may be overstated in a local survey where respondents want to appear committed
B1 identifies a second limitation, e.g. differences between behaviour and belief, or membership vs practice
B1 explains or links to Item A, e.g. only 20% membership but 40% monthly attendance suggests measurement differences
Answer: Answers may note social desirability bias, so the 30% saying they are 'strongly religious' could be overstated; and that different measures capture different things, since 40% report monthly attendance but only 20% formal membership, showing behaviour and membership do not always match.

Question 7

B1 identifies one way, e.g. vicarious religion describes a small number of active believers supporting a larger number who are spiritually dependent
B1 development, e.g. this explains low attendance but persistent belief among the wider population
B1 identifies a second way, e.g. 'believing without belonging' explains why people may hold private religious beliefs without formal church involvement
B1 development, e.g. this helps explain middle-class private spirituality alongside low formal membership
Answer: Davie argues vicarious religion means a smaller active group practises religion on behalf of a larger population who remain spiritually connected, and believing without belonging means people can hold private beliefs without formal church membership, explaining low attendance but continued private religiosity.

Question 8

B1 identifies a genuine pattern, e.g. women report higher levels of religious belief and practice than men
B1 brief development or example
Answer: Research commonly finds that women report higher levels of religious belief and practice than men.

Question 9

B1 one correct pattern named, e.g. class
B1 second correct pattern named, e.g. gender
B1 third correct pattern named, e.g. ethnicity
B1 fourth correct pattern named, e.g. age or generation
Answer: Class; gender; ethnicity; age (generation).

Question 10

B1 identifies a first reason, e.g. socialisation: women are socialised into caring roles and religious socialisation
B1 develops first reason with application to Item B, e.g. Priya's community role reflects socialisation into communal and caring religious activities
B1 identifies a second reason, e.g. connection to life events: women have closer ties to birth, death and family rituals
B1 develops second reason with application to Item B, e.g. Erin's private practice could reflect personal family or emotional ties even without public attendance
B1 provides sociological support or named study, e.g. refers to Miller and Hoffman or Davie to support the point
B1 accurate application across both reasons, showing how Item B illustrates the two explanations
Answer: Answers should analyse two reasons, for example: (1) Socialisation, where women are often encouraged into caring and community roles that link to religious participation, as seen in Priya helping at the mosque; (2) Closeness to life events and family rituals, where women may be more involved in birth, baptism and funerals and so maintain religious ties even in private, as Erin does with occasional prayer. A correct answer will support points with a named study such as Miller and Hoffman or Davie and apply them to both women in Item B.

Question 11

B1 identifies one difference, e.g. membership records measure formal affiliation while private belief measures personal conviction
B1 development or example, e.g. membership may fall while private belief remains stable
B1 identifies second difference, e.g. membership requires action (joining), private belief does not
B1 development or example, e.g. people may believe but not join due to time, cost or believing without belonging (Davie)
Answer: Membership statistics record formal affiliation, whereas private belief measures personal conviction; membership can fall while belief remains, and membership requires active joining while private belief does not, explained by concepts like Davie's 'believing without belonging'.

Question 12

B1 identifies a genuine difference, e.g. they focus on consumerist, New Age spirituality among middle classes rather than class-based church membership alone
B1 brief development
Answer: Heelas and Bruce emphasise a spiritual market and New Age consumption among the middle classes, rather than viewing class differences only in terms of formal church membership or sect attraction.

Question 13

B1 identifies cohort explanation, e.g. older people belong to more religious cohorts raised with higher religious practice
B1 develops cohort explanation, e.g. Voas and Crockett argue that lower religiosity among younger cohorts reflects social change
B1 identifies life-cycle explanation, e.g. people become more religious as they age due to life events like retirement or bereavement
B1 develops life-cycle explanation, e.g. life-cycle events increase the salience of religion for older individuals
Answer: A cohort explanation says older people were socialised into more religious decades and keep those levels, as Voas and Crockett suggest; a life-cycle explanation says individuals become more religious as they age because of events like bereavement or retirement that make religion more relevant.

Question 14

B1 identifies a genuine finding, e.g. some minority ethnic groups report higher levels of religious belief and practice than the white British majority
B1 brief development or example
Answer: Modood found that some minority ethnic groups show higher levels of religious belief and practice than the white British majority.

Question 15

B1 identifies a reason, e.g. such groups offer community, support and a promise of meaning which compensates for economic disadvantage
B1 brief development or link to Weber's theodicy of disprivilege
Answer: High-commitment groups offer community, support and a promise of meaning or future reward that compensates for economic disadvantage, consistent with Weber's theodicy of disprivilege.

Question 16

Level 1 (1-3): Simple assertions about causes of group differences with little sociological support, limited use of studies or examples, and a weak or no conclusion.
Level 2 (4-6): Some balanced points referencing relevant ideas, with at least one named study or concept applied, limited evaluation and a basic conclusion.
Level 3 (7-9): Clear comparison of competing explanations, using several named studies or concepts such as Modood, Davie, Miller and Hoffman, Heelas and Bruce, Weber, Voas and Crockett, with reasoned evaluation and a supported conclusion.
Level 4 (10-12): Well developed, balanced analysis of socialisation and cultural identity explanations against structural and cohort/life-cycle accounts, accurate use of multiple named studies, consideration of measurement issues, and a convincing, well-supported conclusion.
Indicative content:
- Socialisation explanations: gender socialisation leading to women's greater religiosity; Miller and Hoffman on socialisation into caring roles; Davie's ideas about believing without belonging and vicarious religion as cultural patterns.
- Cultural identity explanations: Modood on religion's role in maintaining cultural identity for some ethnic minorities; religion as community cohesion and cultural marker among migrants.
- Structural explanations: Weber's theodicy of disprivilege and attraction of the working class to sects or high-commitment groups; Heelas and Bruce on middle-class spiritual consumption linked to resources and lifestyle.
- Age and cohort explanations: Voas and Crockett on cohort effects and generational decline versus life-cycle change where individuals become more religious with age.
- Methodological issues: differences between self-reported belief, attendance, and formal membership; dark figure of private religiosity; survey and sampling limits.
- Evaluation: strengths and limits of each explanation, how they can be complementary (for example socialisation operates within structural contexts), and a supported judgement on which explanation is most convincing overall, with reference to evidence.

Class, Gender, Ethnicity and Age: Patterns of Religiosity - Worksheets, Questions and Revision