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GCSE · AQA

GSOC.FA3 Conjugal Roles and the Domestic Division of Labour

AQA 8192 · Calculators not allowed · about 75 minutes

Total Marks

Name: _______________________________ Date: ____ / ____ / ______

Answer ALL questions. Show your understanding by using sociological vocabulary and, where asked, your own examples.

Which sociologist studied American dual-earner couples and found that many women did a 'second shift' of housework and childcare after their paid job?

A) Elizabeth Bott
B) Arlie Hochschild
C) Jonathan Gershuny
D) Jan Pahl

(Total for Question 1 is 1 mark)

Define what is meant by a 'second shift'.

(Total for Question 2 is 2 marks)

The sociologist Arlie Hochschild (1989) studied American dual-earner couples.

(a)Explain what Hochschild meant by the 'second shift'.(2)

(b)Explain what is meant by a 'third shift' in this context.(2)

(Total for Question 3 is 4 marks)

The British sociologist Jonathan Gershuny used time-use diary research to study change in the domestic division of labour.

(a)Explain what Gershuny meant by 'lagged adaptation'.(2)

(b)Explain one advantage time-use diary research could give Gershuny that a one-off survey could not.(2)

(Total for Question 4 is 4 marks)

Explain how social class or level of education can affect how equal conjugal roles are within a couple.

(Total for Question 5 is 4 marks)

Explain how changes in technology may have affected conjugal roles.

(Total for Question 6 is 4 marks)

State one criticism that can be made of Gershuny's 'lagged adaptation' thesis.

(Total for Question 7 is 2 marks)

State one criticism that can be made of applying Hochschild's research to the UK today.

(Total for Question 8 is 2 marks)

Sociologists disagree about how equal conjugal roles have really become, and about why change has been slow.

Evaluate the view that conjugal roles in the UK have become genuinely equal. In your answer you should refer to sociologists' views and consider more than one perspective.

(Total for Question 9 is 12 marks)

For each situation below, state whether it is more likely to increase or reduce equality in conjugal roles.

(a)Both partners work full time in similarly paid jobs.(1)

(b)Only one partner can work flexibly or from home, while the other must always attend a fixed workplace.(1)

(c)The couple can afford a washing machine, dishwasher and pre-prepared meals.(1)

(Total for Question 10 is 3 marks)

Explain how shared parental leave could support the process Gershuny described as 'lagged adaptation'.

(Total for Question 11 is 2 marks)

State one strength of using time-use diaries, like Gershuny's, to study conjugal roles.

(Total for Question 12 is 2 marks)

State one weakness of using interviews, like Hochschild's, to study conjugal roles.

(Total for Question 13 is 2 marks)

Define the term 'domestic division of labour'.

(Total for Question 14 is 2 marks)

Explain one way government policy, other than shared parental leave, could support more equal conjugal roles.

(Total for Question 15 is 2 marks)

Explain two reasons sociologists give for why change in conjugal roles has been gradual rather than sudden.

(Total for Question 16 is 4 marks)

State one similarity between Gershuny's and Hochschild's findings on conjugal roles.

(Total for Question 17 is 2 marks)

Mark scheme · GSOC.FA3 Conjugal Roles and the Domestic Division of Labour

Question 1

B1 B (Arlie Hochschild)
Answer: B

Question 2

B1 identifies the unpaid housework and childcare many women do after finishing paid work (oe)
B1 development, e.g. Hochschild found this meant many working mothers effectively worked a second, unpaid job at home
Answer: A 'second shift' is the unpaid housework and childcare many women do after finishing paid work, meaning they effectively work a second, unpaid job at home.

Question 3

(a) B1 identifies the unpaid housework and childcare done after paid work
(a) B1 development, e.g. Hochschild found many women did most of this even when they were also working full time
(a) Answer: The 'second shift' is the unpaid housework and childcare done after paid work; Hochschild found many women did most of this even when also working full time.
(b) B1 identifies the emotional work of managing feelings about the imbalance, e.g. suppressing resentment or keeping the peace (oe)
(b) B1 development, e.g. this extra emotional labour often fell to women too, alongside paid work and the second shift
(b) Answer: The 'third shift' is the emotional work of managing feelings about the imbalance, such as suppressing resentment, which Hochschild found often fell to women too, alongside paid work and the second shift.

Question 4

(a) B1 identifies that as more women took full-time paid work, men's share of housework increased too, but only gradually (oe)
(a) B1 development, e.g. Gershuny argued behaviour and attitudes take time to catch up with structural changes such as women's rising employment
(a) Answer: Gershuny found men's share of housework increased gradually as more women took full-time paid work, arguing that behaviour and attitudes take time to catch up with structural change, a process he called 'lagged adaptation'.
(b) B1 identifies, e.g. time-use diaries can show change over time or across generations, not just a single snapshot
(b) B1 development, e.g. this let Gershuny track whether men's contribution was gradually rising over the years, rather than only measuring it once
(b) Answer: Time-use diaries can track change over time rather than giving only a single snapshot, letting Gershuny see whether men's contribution to housework was gradually rising over the years.

Question 5

B1 identifies that couples with higher incomes or more education are, on average, more likely to share housework and childcare more equally
B1 development, e.g. they may be more able to afford labour-saving technology or paid domestic help, freeing up time
B1 identifies that couples on lower incomes may have less flexibility, e.g. if only one partner can afford to reduce paid working hours
B1 development, e.g. this can make an unequal division of unpaid work more likely in lower-income households
Answer: Higher-income, more-educated couples are, on average, more likely to share housework and childcare more equally, partly because they can afford labour-saving technology or paid help; lower-income couples may have less flexibility for either partner to reduce paid hours, making unequal division more likely.

Question 6

B1 identifies that labour-saving devices, e.g. washing machines, ready meals and online shopping, reduce the total time housework takes
B1 development, e.g. this can make it more realistic for tasks to be shared, since no single task takes as long as it once did
B1 identifies that some technology, e.g. remote or flexible working, can make it easier for either partner to be at home during the day
B1 development, e.g. this can support a more equal division of childcare and household management
Answer: Labour-saving devices such as washing machines and online shopping reduce how long housework takes, making sharing more realistic, while technology enabling remote or flexible working can make it easier for either partner to be at home, supporting more equal childcare.

Question 7

B1 identifies a recognised criticism, e.g. it suggests full equality will eventually arrive but does not fully explain why change has been so slow, or guarantee it will keep happening
B1 brief development, e.g. or that overall averages can hide big differences between individual couples
Answer: Critics argue the thesis suggests equality will eventually arrive but does not fully explain why change has been slow, and that overall averages can hide big differences between individual couples.

Question 8

B1 identifies a recognised criticism, e.g. Hochschild's research was based on American couples in the 1980s, so findings may not directly transfer to the UK or to couples today
B1 brief development, e.g. or that attitudes and policies, such as shared parental leave, have changed since her original study
Answer: Critics argue Hochschild's research was based on American couples in the 1980s, so findings may not directly transfer to the UK today, especially since policies such as shared parental leave have changed since her original study.

Question 9

Level 4 (10-12): A detailed, well-balanced evaluation that accurately explains BOTH evidence of genuine progress towards equality AND evidence that full equality has not been reached, supported by accurate reference to named sociologists. Strengths and weaknesses of each view are analysed, and a reasoned, supported judgement is reached. Sociological terminology is used accurately and consistently throughout.
Level 3 (7-9): A clear evaluation that explains both sides of the debate, with some accurate reference to sociologists. Some analysis of strengths/weaknesses. An attempt at a conclusion, which may be only partly supported.
Level 2 (4-6): Some relevant explanation of one or both sides of the debate, with limited development or accuracy. Little clear evaluation or comparison between views.
Level 1 (1-3): One or two isolated, undeveloped points about conjugal roles, with little or no sociological terminology or accurate detail.
Level 0 (0): No relevant content.
Indicative content:
- Evidence for genuine progress: Gershuny's time-use diary research found men's share of housework has gradually risen as more women took full-time paid work, a process he called 'lagged adaptation'; policies such as shared parental leave and more flexible or remote working can support a more equal division of childcare.
- Further support: rising numbers of women in full-time paid work and, in some sectors, smaller pay gaps reduce the practical case for one partner, usually the woman, doing all unpaid work by default.
- Evidence against full equality: Hochschild's (1989) research found many women did a 'second shift' of housework and childcare after paid work, and sometimes a 'third shift' of emotional labour managing feelings about the imbalance.
- Further evidence against: social class and income affect how equal roles can be, e.g. lower-income couples may have less flexibility for either partner to reduce paid hours.
- Evaluation of the 'progress' case: critics argue slow, gradual change, as Gershuny found, is not the same as equality, and that self-reported 'sharing' can overstate how equal contributions really are.
- Evaluation of the 'not equal' case: critics argue it may understate real change since the 1980s, when Hochschild's original research took place, including newer policies such as shared parental leave.
- A balanced conclusion should weigh clear evidence of a long-term trend towards sharing against evidence that full, consistent equality has not yet been reached for most couples.

Question 10

(a) B1 increase
(a) Answer: Increase
(b) B1 reduce
(b) Answer: Reduce
(c) B1 increase
(c) Answer: Increase

Question 11

B1 identifies that shared parental leave lets fathers take time off to care for a new baby, not only mothers
B1 development, e.g. this could speed up the process Gershuny described, helping men's involvement in childcare 'catch up' more quickly
Answer: Shared parental leave lets fathers take time off to care for a new baby, which could speed up the 'lagged adaptation' process Gershuny described by helping men's involvement in childcare catch up more quickly.

Question 12

B1 identifies a genuine strength, e.g. diaries record what people actually did during the day, rather than relying only on memory or general impressions
B1 brief development, e.g. this can give a more accurate, detailed picture of how time is really divided between partners
Answer: Time-use diaries record what people actually did during the day rather than relying on memory or general impressions, giving a more accurate, detailed picture of how time is divided between partners.

Question 13

B1 identifies a genuine weakness, e.g. people may not always answer honestly, for example exaggerating how much housework they do to appear fair or hardworking
B1 brief development, e.g. this could make actual sharing of tasks look more equal than it really is
Answer: People may not always answer honestly in interviews, for example exaggerating how much housework they do, which could make sharing of tasks look more equal than it really is.

Question 14

B1 identifies how unpaid household tasks, such as housework and childcare, are divided between partners (oe)
B1 development, e.g. this can be divided equally (joint) or unequally (segregated) between partners
Answer: The domestic division of labour is how unpaid household tasks, such as housework and childcare, are divided between partners, either equally (joint) or unequally (segregated).

Question 15

B1 identifies a genuine relevant policy, e.g. affordable or subsidised childcare, making it more possible for both partners to work full time
B1 brief development, e.g. this can reduce the pressure for one partner to reduce paid work and take on most unpaid domestic work by default
Answer: Affordable, subsidised childcare makes it more possible for both partners to work full time, reducing the pressure for one partner to reduce paid work and take on most unpaid domestic work by default.

Question 16

B1 identifies one reason, e.g. deep-rooted cultural expectations about men's and women's roles change slowly, even when circumstances such as women's employment change quickly
B1 development
B1 identifies a second, different reason, e.g. workplaces have been slow to fully support men taking on more caring responsibilities, for example through flexible hours or parental leave uptake
B1 development
Answer: Cultural expectations about men's and women's roles change slowly, even when circumstances like women's employment change quickly, and workplaces have been slow to fully support men taking on more caring responsibilities, for example through flexible hours.

Question 17

B1 identifies a genuine similarity, e.g. both found women continued to carry more of the unpaid domestic workload than men, despite women's increased participation in paid work
B1 brief development, e.g. both suggest full equality had not been reached at the time of their research
Answer: Both Gershuny and Hochschild found women continued to carry more of the unpaid domestic workload than men despite women's increased paid work, suggesting full equality had not been reached at the time of their research.

Conjugal Roles and the Domestic Division of Labour - Worksheets, Questions and Revision