Congress in Practice: Committees, Incumbency and Relations with the Presidency
Congress does most of its detailed work in a system of standing committees, permanent bodies specialising in policy areas such as finance or armed services, where bills are examined, amended and can be blocked entirely if a chair declines to schedule them.
Before you start
Make sure you're comfortable with these topics first:
Method
- Learn what a standing committee does (detailed scrutiny, amendment, hearings) and the gatekeeping power a chair holds by controlling whether a bill is even scheduled for a vote.
- Learn the main sources of incumbency advantage: name recognition, constituency casework, the franking privilege for official mail, and a fundraising edge over challengers, and learn that this produces very high re-election rates for sitting members.
- List the factors shaping how a member of Congress votes, then be ready to weigh them against each other for a specific case: party/whip pressure, constituency opinion (the 'electoral connection'), personal ideology, interest group and lobbyist pressure, and presidential pressure.
- Learn the main channels through which Congress checks the presidency: oversight hearings, the confirmation process for nominees, the power to override a veto with two-thirds of both chambers, the power of the purse, and impeachment.
- For an 'is Congress effective at holding the president to account' question, weigh those channels of oversight against limits on them, such as a same-party majority in Congress being reluctant to challenge its own president, or a two-thirds override threshold rarely being reached.
- Always name the specific mechanism (e.g. 'confirmation hearings' or 'the franking privilege') rather than a vague reference to 'checks', since the mark scheme rewards precision.
Worked example
A senator from a rural, agriculture-heavy state is deciding how to vote on a bill that her party leadership supports, but that would cut a subsidy her state's farmers rely on. Explain the competing pressures on her vote and suggest which is likely to be decisive.
- Identify the two competing pressures named in the scenario: party loyalty (the whip and party leadership want her support) versus constituency interest (her state's farmers oppose the subsidy cut).
- Explain the party loyalty pressure: senators who vote against their own party's priorities can lose committee positions, leadership support for their own bills, or campaign resources in future elections.
- Explain the constituency pressure: because senators face re-election and depend on their state's voters, a senator seen as damaging a major local industry risks losing support, especially if the issue is salient and well organised (e.g. farm lobby groups).
- Weigh the two: a senator's own re-election is usually the stronger long-term incentive (the 'electoral connection'), so if the constituency interest is clear, well organised and politically salient, it is likely to outweigh a single instance of party pressure, particularly since senators have more electoral independence than House members due to their six-year term and statewide, more diverse electorate.
- Conclude with a reasoned judgement: the senator is likely to vote against her own party's subsidy cut, prioritising the concentrated, organised constituency interest over general party loyalty, unless the leadership offers a significant concession or the bill is a defining party priority.
Practice questions
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Q1What is a standing committee?Show answer
Answer: A permanent congressional committee that specialises in a policy area and examines, amends and can block bills in that area.
Q2What term describes a committee chair refusing to schedule a bill for a vote, effectively killing it?Show answer
Answer: Gatekeeping (or pigeonholing).
Q3Name two sources of incumbency advantage for a sitting member of Congress.Show answer
Answer: Any two of: name recognition, constituency casework, the franking privilege for official mail, and a fundraising advantage over challengers.
Q4What is 'pork barrel' spending?Show answer
Answer: Federal spending that a member of Congress secures for projects in their own district or state, often to boost their standing with local voters.
Q5Name one formal mechanism Congress uses to check the president's power.Show answer
Answer: Any one of: overriding a veto with a two-thirds vote in both chambers, confirming or rejecting nominations, conducting oversight hearings, controlling appropriations (the power of the purse), or impeachment.
Q6Give one reason a member of Congress might vote against their own party's position.Show answer
Answer: Strong, well-organised constituency opposition to the party's position, or a personal ideological objection to the policy.
Q7What vote threshold is needed in both chambers of Congress to override a presidential veto?Show answer
Answer: A two-thirds vote in both the House and the Senate.
Exam-style questions
Written in the style of a A Level Politics exam paper, with a full mark scheme.
Explain and analyse three factors that influence how a member of Congress votes on a piece of legislation.
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'Congress is highly effective at holding the presidency to account.' Evaluate this statement.
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See real A Level Politics past-paper questions, with official mark schemes →
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