Sport Psychology: The Information-Processing Model, Guidance and Feedback
In sport psychology, the information-processing model, guidance and feedback describe how a performer learns and executes skilled action.
Before you start
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Method
- When a question is about the information processing model, work through input, decision making, output and feedback in order, naming each stage and giving a sporting example of what happens at that stage.
- When a question is about guidance, identify the type from what is described: a demonstration is visual guidance, the coach explaining a technique out loud is verbal guidance, the coach physically positioning a limb is manual guidance, and equipment doing part of the work, such as a float, is mechanical guidance.
- For guidance, always be ready to state one advantage and one drawback and to say which performer or situation it best suits, e.g. visual guidance suits beginners learning a whole new skill; manual and mechanical guidance suit dangerous or complex skills, or complete beginners, but risk over-reliance if used for too long.
- When a question is about feedback, identify whether it is about the source (intrinsic vs extrinsic), the content (knowledge of results vs knowledge of performance) or the tone (positive vs negative), since a scenario can combine more than one type at once.
- Match feedback type to the performer: beginners often need more extrinsic, results-based and positive feedback to build confidence, since they cannot yet feel their own errors; elite performers rely more on intrinsic feedback and detailed knowledge of performance to fine-tune technique.
- For extended questions, build an argument that names the guidance or feedback type, explains its effect using a stage of the information processing model, and applies it to the specific performer and skill given in the question, rather than describing the types in the abstract.
Worked example
A complete beginner is learning to serve in volleyball. Using the information processing model, explain what happens at the input and decision-making stages the first time she attempts the serve, and suggest one type of guidance her coach should use, with a reason.
- Input: identify what sensory information she receives - sight of the ball, net height and her own body position, and any verbal instruction from the coach.
- Decision making: because she is a complete beginner, she has little or no relevant information stored in memory from past attempts, so she cannot yet compare the input to a well-learned pattern and must consciously work out each part of the action.
- State the consequence: this makes decision making slow and effortful for a beginner, which is why early attempts at a new skill are often hesitant or poorly timed.
- Suggest guidance: recommend visual guidance, such as the coach demonstrating the serve action, because it gives her a clear model of the whole skill to store in memory, which she does not yet have.
- Justify the reason: visual guidance suits beginners learning a new, whole skill because it builds the reference the decision-making stage needs, without the complexity of a purely verbal explanation she may not yet fully understand.
Practice questions
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Q1Name the four stages of the information processing model, in order.Show answer
Answer: Input, decision making, output, feedback.
Q2State which stage of the information processing model uses the effector system to carry out the chosen action.Show answer
Answer: The output stage.
Q3A swimming coach physically moves a young swimmer's arm through the correct front crawl pull. Name this type of guidance.Show answer
Answer: Manual guidance.
Q4Give one drawback of manual guidance if it is used for too long.Show answer
Answer: The performer can become over-reliant on the coach's physical support and fail to develop the feel of the movement needed to perform it independently.
Q5A gymnast is told 'well done, that landing was perfectly balanced.' Classify this feedback by source and by tone.Show answer
Answer: It is extrinsic, since it is given by an external source, the coach, and positive, since it confirms the performance was correct.
Q6Explain the difference between knowledge of results and knowledge of performance.Show answer
Answer: Knowledge of results tells the performer about the outcome of the action, such as the shot scoring or missing, while knowledge of performance tells them about the quality or technique of the movement itself, such as the follow-through being too short.
Q7Why might an elite performer rely more on intrinsic feedback than a beginner does?Show answer
Answer: Because years of practice have given them a well-developed feel for correct technique, so they can sense many of their own errors without needing a coach to point them out.
Exam-style questions
Written in the style of a GCSE Physical Education exam paper, with a full mark scheme.
A tennis coach is teaching an advanced junior player a new topspin backhand. State and justify one type of guidance and one type of feedback that would be appropriate at this stage, and one type of guidance that would be inappropriate, with a reason.
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A youth football coach has two players in his under-13s squad: one who has just joined the sport with no previous experience, and one who has played for six years and is technically strong but needs to fine-tune his shooting technique. Discuss, with reference to guidance and feedback, how the coach should adapt his coaching approach for each player.
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See real GCSE Physical Education past-paper questions, with official mark schemes →
Free printable worksheet
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