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A-Level · Psychology

PSY.PSYP5 The Two-Process Model: Explaining Phobias via Conditioning

AQA 7182 · Calculators not allowed · about 60 minutes

Total Marks

Name: _______________________________ Date: ____ / ____ / ______

Answer ALL questions. Show all your working.

Outline how classical conditioning is used in the two-process model to explain the acquisition of a phobia. Name the model originator where appropriate and give a phobia example.

Outline classical conditioning in acquisition of phobias.

(Total for Question 1 is 2 marks)

Explain how operant conditioning accounts for the maintenance of a phobia in the two-process model, using the idea of negative reinforcement and avoidance behaviour in your explanation.

Explain operant conditioning and maintenance of phobias via avoidance.

(Total for Question 2 is 4 marks)

Outline briefly how social learning theory can supplement the two-process model in explaining the acquisition of phobias, mentioning observation and vicarious reinforcement and giving an applied example.

Outline social learning theory as a supplementary explanation for phobia acquisition.

(Total for Question 3 is 4 marks)

Apply the two-process model to this short scenario: Kwame screamed when a swarm of wasps attacked him while he was picnicking. Since then he avoids parks and outdoor eating. Identify the acquisition and the maintenance parts of his phobia according to the model, and explain each briefly.

Apply the two-process model to Kwame's wasp fear.

(Total for Question 4 is 3 marks)

A student, Amelia, developed a fear of spiders after watching her older sister scream at a large spider in the garden. Amelia now refuses to go into the garden and feels anxious when asked to help with gardening. Apply the two-process model and social learning theory to explain how Amelia's fear may have been acquired and maintained. Make two short points only: one showing acquisition and one showing maintenance, each referring to the scenario.

Apply the models to Amelia's spider fear in two short points.

(Total for Question 5 is 4 marks)

Explain one way the diathesis-stress model challenges the two-process model of phobias. Your answer should make the challenge clear and explain why it matters for the two-process account.

Explain a diathesis-stress challenge to the two-process model.

(Total for Question 6 is 6 marks)

Explain one limitation of the two-process model related to its neglect of cognitive factors, and show why this limitation reduces the model's explanatory power for phobias.

Explain a cognitive critique of the two-process model.

(Total for Question 7 is 4 marks)

Identify one methodological limitation in the research that supports the two-process model and explain how this limitation weakens the model's empirical support.

Identify a methodological limitation of supporting research.

(Total for Question 8 is 3 marks)

In this brief scenario identify the unconditioned stimulus (UCS), the unconditioned response (UCR), the conditioned stimulus (CS) and the conditioned response (CR): Yusuf was splashed by cold seawater while walking on the beach and panicked. After that, Yusuf felt anxious whenever he walked on any beach.

Label UCS, UCR, CS and CR in Yusuf's beach example.

(Total for Question 9 is 2 marks)

Explain briefly one practical implication of the two-process model for preventing development of phobias in children, without describing specific treatments. Give a clear actionable point and explain why it follows from the model.

Explain a prevention implication from the two-process model.

(Total for Question 10 is 4 marks)

Design a short naturalistic observational study to test whether avoidance behaviour maintains a fear of dogs in a community sample. State the behavioural measure, sampling approach, and one ethical consideration. Your answer should describe procedure and expected observation in one short paragraph.

Design a naturalistic study to observe avoidance maintaining dog fear.

(Total for Question 11 is 6 marks)

Discuss strengths and limitations of social learning theory as a supplement to the two-process model in explaining phobias. Make at least two strengths and two limitations, and link points to why social learning improves or fails to improve the two-process account.

Discuss SLT as a supplement to the two-process model.

(Total for Question 12 is 6 marks)

Outline and evaluate the two-process model of phobias. In your answer include clear AO1 description of both processes and a focused AO3 evaluation that includes challenges such as diathesis-stress, neglect of cognition, and how social learning theory supplements the account. Use evidence where appropriate.

Outline and evaluate the two-process model of phobias.

(Total for Question 13 is 16 marks)

Mark scheme · PSY.PSYP5 The Two-Process Model: Explaining Phobias via Conditioning

Question 1

B1 states that a neutral stimulus becomes associated with a frightening or traumatic stimulus and so elicits a conditioned fear response oe
B1 names Mowrer or the two-process model and gives a simple applied example, e.g. being bitten by a dog (UCS) leading to fear of dogs (CS) oe
Answer: Mowrer's two-process model says a neutral stimulus becomes associated with a frightening event by classical conditioning so the stimulus later triggers fear; for example, a dog bite leads to dogs becoming a feared stimulus.

Question 2

M1 states that avoidance behaviour reduces anxiety which is negatively reinforcing oe
A1 explains negative reinforcement: removing or preventing the unpleasant state makes the avoidance behaviour more likely to be repeated oe
A1 applies this to phobias by explaining that avoiding the phobic stimulus prevents exposure and so prevents extinction of the fear oe
A1 gives a concrete example, e.g. avoiding lifts prevents anxiety after a panic in a lift so the fear of lifts is maintained oe
Answer: Operant conditioning maintains phobias because avoidance reduces anxiety; this negative reinforcement makes avoidance more likely, preventing extinction so the phobia persists, for example avoiding lifts after a panic maintains a lift phobia.

Question 3

M1 identifies observational learning: a person can acquire fear by watching someone else show fear towards a stimulus oe
A1 identifies vicarious reinforcement: observing another being distressed or punished by a stimulus can make the observer avoid it and learn fear oe
A1 gives an applied example, e.g. a child develops fear of dogs after seeing a parent panic at a dog oe
A1 states that social learning theory can explain acquisition without direct personal trauma oe
Answer: Social learning theory suggests phobias can be learned by observing others show fear and by vicarious reinforcement when avoidance seems to be rewarded; for example a child may fear dogs after watching a parent panic at a dog.

Question 4

B1 identifies acquisition as classical conditioning: wasp swarm acted as the aversive event associated with the picnic context so parks/outdoor eating become CSs eliciting fear oe
B1 identifies maintenance as operant conditioning: avoiding parks reduces anxiety so avoidance is negatively reinforced and the fear persists oe
B1 briefly explains each link to the scenario, e.g. screaming during the attack pairs the wasp stimulus with fear and later avoidance prevents unlearning oe
Answer: Acquisition: classical conditioning when the wasp swarm at the picnic becomes associated with fear so parks/outdoor eating act as conditioned stimuli. Maintenance: operant conditioning because avoiding parks reduces anxiety, negatively reinforcing avoidance so the phobia continues.

Question 5

M1 acquisition point: identifies observational learning/classical conditioning, e.g. Amelia observed her sister's fearful reaction which either directly associated spiders with fear or led Amelia to adopt the fear by imitation oe
A1 gives a clear scenario link, e.g. seeing the sister scream made the spider appear dangerous and produced a fear response in Amelia oe
M1 maintenance point: identifies avoidance and negative reinforcement, e.g. refusing to go into the garden prevents anxiety so avoidance is reinforced oe
A1 gives a clear scenario link, e.g. lack of exposure prevents extinction so the fear of spiders persists oe
Answer: Acquisition: Amelia learned fear by observing her sister's fearful reaction and/or through classical association so spiders became linked to fear. Maintenance: avoiding the garden reduces Amelia's anxiety, negatively reinforcing avoidance and preventing extinction so the fear continues.

Question 6

M1 identifies the diathesis-stress idea: some individuals have genetic or biological vulnerabilities that make them more likely to develop a disorder after stress oe
A1 explains that this implies conditioning alone may not be sufficient to explain why some people develop phobias and others do not after similar events oe
A1 provides an example or expansion, e.g. two people bitten by dogs where only the genetically vulnerable person develops a persistent phobia oe
M1 explains the implication for the two-process model: it may be incomplete because it ignores biological predispositions that affect susceptibility oe
A1 explains why this matters in practice, e.g. treatments based only on behavioural principles might be less effective for those whose phobias reflect underlying vulnerability oe
A1 links back by concluding the challenge: diathesis-stress suggests a multi-factorial account is needed beyond simple conditioning oe
Answer: The diathesis-stress model says biological vulnerabilities make some people more likely to develop phobias after stressful events. This challenges the two-process model because conditioning alone cannot explain individual differences in who develops persistent phobias. For example, two people bitten by dogs might have different outcomes if one has a genetic sensitivity to anxiety. Therefore the two-process model is incomplete and a multi-factorial account that includes vulnerability factors is needed, which matters for understanding and treating phobias.

Question 7

M1 identifies the limitation: the model focuses on observable behaviour and learning but downplays cognitive factors such as irrational beliefs or misinterpretation of threat oe
A1 explains why this matters: cognitive processes can maintain fear by biased attention or catastrophic thinking even without avoidance, so the behavioural account is incomplete oe
A1 gives an applied example, e.g. a person may overestimate the danger posed by dogs because of a persistent catastrophic thought pattern even without direct reinforcement oe
A1 concludes that effective explanations and treatments may need to address cognition as well as conditioning oe
Answer: The two-process model neglects cognitive factors like catastrophic thinking and biased attention. These cognitions can maintain fear independently of avoidance, so the behavioural account alone is incomplete; for example someone might overestimate the danger of dogs due to persistent catastrophic beliefs even without direct reinforcement, implying that cognitive elements should be included in explanations and treatments.

Question 8

M1 identifies a genuine limitation, e.g. many classic conditioning studies use animal models or artificial laboratory tasks that lack ecological validity oe
A1 explains how this weakens support, e.g. animal conditioning may not generalise to complex human emotional reactions and laboratory tasks may not capture real phobic experiences oe
A1 provides a consequence, e.g. the model may overstate the role of simple associative learning in real-world phobia development oe
Answer: A limitation is that much supporting research relies on animal studies or artificial lab tasks, so findings may not generalise to complex human phobias; this reduces the strength of empirical support for the two-process model in real-world contexts.

Question 9

B1 UCS: being splashed by cold seawater cao
B1 UCR: panic/anxiety in response to the splashing; CS: beaches; CR: anxiety when walking on beaches oe
Answer: UCS = being splashed by cold seawater. UCR = panic/anxiety at the time. CS = beaches. CR = anxiety when later walking on beaches.

Question 10

M1 identifies an actionable prevention point, e.g. caregivers should avoid pairing neutral situations with fearful responses and should model calm reactions to potentially scary stimuli oe
A1 explains why this follows from classical conditioning/social learning: observing calm reduces chance of associating the stimulus with fear or learning fear vicariously oe
A1 links to maintenance prevention, e.g. encouraging graded, safe exposure rather than avoidance so that fear does not become reinforced oe
A1 concludes why it matters, e.g. reducing initial pairing and avoiding reinforcement reduces the likelihood a child develops a persistent phobia oe
Answer: For prevention, caregivers should avoid showing exaggerated fear and should model calm responses to possibly scary stimuli, because classical conditioning and social learning mean children can acquire fear by association or observation. Also encouraging safe, graded contact instead of avoidance prevents negative reinforcement from maintaining fear, reducing risk of persistent phobias.

Question 11

M1 states a clear behavioural measure, e.g. frequency of entering dog-friendly parks, distance kept from dogs, or number of avoidance actions in public settings oe
M1 describes a sampling approach, e.g. opportunistic or stratified sampling of adults who self-report discomfort around dogs recruited from community centres, with numbers specified or sampling rationale oe
M1 describes procedure: observing participants in natural settings such as parks or pavements over set observation periods and recording avoidance behaviours systematically oe
A1 explains expected observation consistent with two-process model: those reporting past traumatic dog experiences show more avoidance behaviours which prevent habituation/extinction oe
A1 identifies one ethical consideration, e.g. informed consent for being observed in non-private settings or debriefing if covert observation is used, and suggests how to address it oe
A1 links limitation or validity issue, e.g. observer presence may alter behaviour or self-report bias may affect sampling, and notes how reliability could be improved, such as using multiple observers oe
Answer: Observe a community sample who self-report discomfort around dogs, measuring frequency of avoidance actions (avoiding dog-friendly parks, crossing the road when a dog approaches) using opportunistic or stratified sampling from community centres. Observe each participant during set 30 minute outdoor sessions, recording avoidance incidents. Expect those with prior traumatic dog experiences to show higher avoidance, consistent with maintenance by negative reinforcement. Ethical issues include getting informed consent or debriefing if covert observation is used; minimise harm and anonymise data. Note limitation that observation may alter behaviour and reliability can be improved using multiple observers.

Question 12

M1 states a strength: explains acquisition without direct trauma, e.g. vicarious learning from parents or peers oe
A1 explains why this improves the two-process model, e.g. accounts for phobias arising in people without direct conditioning events oe
M1 states a second strength: includes cognitive processes such as attention and retention, which can explain why some observed behaviours lead to fear while others do not oe
A1 explains how this supplements the two-process model by adding mechanisms for individual differences in learning from models oe
M1 states a limitation: SLT still may not account for biological preparedness or innate biases to fear certain stimuli oe
A1 explains why this is a problem, e.g. some phobias (heights, snakes) are more easily acquired and SLT does not fully explain this predisposition oe
Answer: Strengths: social learning explains how phobias can arise without direct trauma via vicarious learning and adds cognitive processes (attention, retention) that explain individual differences in learning from models, improving on the two-process model. Limitations: SLT still does not explain biological preparedness or innate biases that make some stimuli more likely to become feared, so it does not fully replace the need for explanations that include biological vulnerability.

Question 13

Level 4 (13-16): Knowledge of the two-process model is accurate and detailed for both acquisition and maintenance. Evaluation is thorough and balanced, covering multiple relevant strengths and limitations, including integration of social learning and biological or cognitive challenges, and considers practical implications and empirical evidence. Precise application of evidence and argument shows insight and the answer is well structured with specialist terminology used accurately.
Level 3 (9-12): Knowledge of the two-process model is clear with reasonable detail. Evaluation is effective and includes several relevant points, but may lack depth or omission of one important challenge. Some evidence or application is used. The answer is generally organised and uses appropriate terminology.
Level 2 (5-8): Knowledge is present but limited in detail or partially inaccurate. Evaluation is present but superficial or one sided. Few links to evidence or implications. The answer may lack organisation and specialist terminology is used inconsistently.
Level 1 (1-4): Knowledge is minimal and the evaluation is very limited or missing. Response may be a list with little coherence and specialist terminology is absent or misused.
Level 0 (0): No creditable content.
Indicative content:
- AO1 content: Mowrer's two-process model states that phobias are acquired through classical conditioning when a neutral stimulus becomes associated with an aversive event, so the neutral stimulus comes to elicit fear, and are maintained through operant conditioning because avoidance behaviour reduces anxiety and is negatively reinforced.
- AO1 content: give clear examples, e.g. being bitten by a dog leads to fear of dogs (classical conditioning) and avoiding dogs prevents anxiety and maintains the phobia (operant conditioning).
- AO1 content: social learning theory can supplement acquisition by explaining vicarious learning and modelling of fear responses when direct conditioning is absent.
- AO3 strength: explains many real cases where a traumatic encounter precedes phobia onset and provides a parsimonious learning account that links acquisition and maintenance and suggests mechanisms that can be targeted in behaviour change.
- AO3 limitation: diathesis-stress and biological preparedness challenge the sufficiency of conditioning alone, because not everyone who experiences a traumatic event develops a phobia and certain stimuli are more readily feared, suggesting innate or genetic vulnerability.
- AO3 limitation: neglect of cognitive factors, such as catastrophic thinking, attention biases and interpretation of threat, reduces explanatory power; cognitive theories explain persistent fear even in absence of avoidance.
- AO3 evaluation of evidence: point to laboratory conditioning studies and clinical observations that support associative learning, but note methodological limits such as use of artificial tasks or animal models and variability in replication.
- AO3 integration: social learning theory and cognitive approaches can be combined with the two-process model to produce a more complete biopsychosocial account, which has implications for multi-component interventions and prevention strategies.
- AO3 implication: the model's emphasis on avoidance as maintenance explains why preventing avoidance is important, but because treatment considerations such as systematic desensitisation are covered in other topic packs, discussion here should focus on explanatory adequacy rather than treatment detail.

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