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A-Level · Psychology

PSY.RES13 Features of Science: Objectivity, Falsifiability, Replication and Paradigms

AQA 7182 · Calculators not allowed · about 75 minutes

Total Marks

Name: _______________________________ Date: ____ / ____ / ______

Answer in full sentences for questions worth 4 marks or more. Spend about 75 minutes on the whole pack, allocating roughly one and a half minutes per mark.

Define 'objectivity' as it is used in the scientific study of psychological phenomena, naming the context of measurement and interpretation.

(Total for Question 1 is 2 marks)

Outline what is meant by the empirical method in psychology, and give one example of an empirical technique used to test hypotheses in a lab context.

(Total for Question 2 is 3 marks)

Define 'replicability' in psychological research and explain briefly why it is important for building scientific knowledge in psychology.

(Total for Question 3 is 2 marks)

Explain the difference between a direct replication and a conceptual replication in psychological research, and give one advantage of each type when testing a psychological theory.

(Total for Question 4 is 4 marks)

Define 'falsifiability' with reference to Karl Popper and state why Popper considered it a key criterion for a theory to be scientific in psychology.

(Total for Question 5 is 3 marks)

Define briefly what is meant by 'theory construction' in psychology and give one way researchers move from observations to a formal theory in this field.

(Total for Question 6 is 2 marks)

Outline Thomas Kuhn's idea of a 'paradigm' in the context of psychology, and name one feature of a scientific paradigm Kuhn emphasised.

(Total for Question 7 is 3 marks)

Explain what Kuhn meant by a 'paradigm shift' and give one historical or conceptual example from psychology that could be described as a paradigm shift.

(Total for Question 8 is 4 marks)

Outline two differences between the behaviourist paradigm and the psychodynamic paradigm in psychology, referring to theoretical focus and preferred methods.

(Total for Question 9 is 4 marks)

A researcher proposes a broad claim that 'all dreams are expressions of unconscious wish fulfilment' without suggesting any way the claim could be tested or disproved. Using Popper's criterion of falsifiability, explain why this claim would be criticised as unscientific, and suggest one way the researcher could reformulate the claim to make it falsifiable in a research study.

(Total for Question 10 is 3 marks)

A recent high-profile replication attempt of a social-psychology finding used the same procedure across many labs and failed to reproduce the original effect. Explain two implications this failure to replicate has for claims that psychology is a science.

(Total for Question 11 is 4 marks)

Explain two reasons why strict objectivity may be difficult to achieve in psychological research, giving an example for each reason.

(Total for Question 12 is 4 marks)

Discuss the extent to which psychology can be considered a science. In your answer describe key features of science such as objectivity, falsifiability, replication and paradigms, and evaluate the strengths and limitations of applying these features to psychology. Refer to named examples or approaches, such as behaviourism, the psychodynamic approach and the cognitive revolution, to support your discussion.

Discuss the extent to which psychology can be considered a science.

(Total for Question 13 is 16 marks)

Mark scheme · PSY.RES13 Features of Science: Objectivity, Falsifiability, Replication and Paradigms

Question 1

B1 states that objectivity means observations and measurements are independent of the observer's biases or opinions oe
B1 states that objectivity aims for standardised, replicable procedures and clear operational definitions oe
Answer: Objectivity means making observations and measurements that are not influenced by the researcher's personal beliefs or biases, achieved by using standardised, replicable procedures and clear operational definitions.

Question 2

M1 states that the empirical method relies on systematic observation or measurement of behaviour or mental processes oe
A1 gives an example of an empirical technique, e.g. controlled laboratory experiment measuring behaviour under manipulated conditions oe
A1 explains that empirical findings are used to support or refute hypotheses oe
Answer: The empirical method uses systematic observation and measurement of behaviour or mental processes to test ideas. For example, a controlled laboratory experiment manipulates an independent variable and measures behaviour as empirical evidence to support or refute a hypothesis.

Question 3

B1 defines replicability as the ability for a study or finding to be repeated using the same or similar methods and produce similar results oe
B1 states briefly that replicability increases confidence in findings and helps detect false positives or unreliable results oe
Answer: Replicability is the ability for a study to be repeated using the same or similar methods and to obtain similar results; it is important because repeated success increases confidence in findings and helps identify unreliable or false positive results.

Question 4

M1 defines direct replication: repeating a study as closely as possible to check whether the original findings can be reproduced oe
A1 gives an advantage of direct replication, e.g. it tests the reliability of the exact procedure and controls for experimental error oe
M1 defines conceptual replication: testing the same theoretical prediction using different methods or operationalisations oe
A1 gives an advantage of conceptual replication, e.g. it shows whether the underlying theory holds across different measures and contexts, increasing external validity oe
Answer: A direct replication repeats the original study as closely as possible to see if the same result is obtained; its advantage is testing the reliability of the original procedure. A conceptual replication tests the same theoretical claim using different methods or measures; its advantage is showing whether the theory generalises across contexts and operationalisations.

Question 5

M1 defines falsifiability as the principle that a scientific theory must make predictions that could in principle be shown to be false by observation or experiment oe
A1 names Popper or refers to Karl Popper and his view that unfalsifiable claims are not scientific oe
A1 explains why Popper saw it as key: falsifiability allows theories to be tested and potentially refuted, driving scientific progress rather than protecting theories from disproof oe
Answer: Falsifiability, in Popper's sense, means a theory must make testable predictions that could in principle be shown false by observation or experiment. Popper argued that only falsifiable theories are scientific because they can be tested and risk refutation, which is necessary for genuine scientific progress.

Question 6

B1 defines theory construction as developing a coherent model or set of principles that explain observed phenomena and predict new findings oe
B1 gives one way: e.g. collecting empirical data, identifying patterns, and formulating hypotheses which are then tested and refined into a theory oe
Answer: Theory construction is developing a coherent model of principles that explain observed phenomena and predict new findings. Researchers move from observations to theory by collecting empirical data, spotting patterns, forming hypotheses and then testing and refining those hypotheses into a formal theory.

Question 7

M1 outlines Kuhn's concept: a paradigm is a shared framework of theories, methods and standards that guides normal scientific research oe
A1 names a feature Kuhn emphasised, e.g. shared theoretical assumptions, accepted methods, or exemplar studies that define legitimate problems oe
A1 explains briefly that paradigms shape what counts as valid questions and acceptable evidence in a scientific community oe
Answer: Kuhn's paradigm is a shared framework of theories, methods and standards that guides normal scientific research. One feature Kuhn emphasised is that a paradigm provides shared theoretical assumptions and exemplar studies which determine what problems and methods are considered legitimate.

Question 8

M1 explains that a paradigm shift is a revolutionary change in the overarching framework, when anomalies accumulate and the old paradigm is replaced by a new one oe
A1 gives an example from psychology, e.g. the rise of behaviourism as a move to observable, experimental methods, or the cognitive revolution replacing strict behaviourism with information-processing models oe
M1 explains why the example counts as a shift, e.g. it changed core assumptions, methods and acceptable explanations in the field oe
A1 links the example to a change in what counted as acceptable evidence or problems to study oe
Answer: A paradigm shift is a revolutionary replacement of one overarching framework by another after accumulating anomalies. For example, the cognitive revolution in psychology replaced strict behaviourist assumptions by information-processing models and new experimental methods, changing core assumptions and acceptable explanations.

Question 9

M1 identifies a difference in theoretical focus, e.g. behaviourism focuses on observable behaviour and learning processes, psychodynamic focuses on unconscious drives and early childhood experiences oe
A1 explains the implication of that focus, e.g. behaviourism aims to identify stimulus-response associations and laws of learning whereas psychodynamic theory seeks to interpret internal conflicts and unconscious motives oe
M1 identifies a difference in preferred methods, e.g. behaviourists favour controlled experiments and objective measurement, psychodynamic approaches use clinical case studies and interpretive methods oe
A1 explains the methodological implication, e.g. experimental methods give reproducible data while case studies produce rich but less replicable insights oe
Answer: Behaviourism focuses on observable behaviour and learning processes, while psychodynamic theory focuses on unconscious drives and early childhood experience. Behaviourists favour controlled experiments and objective measurement; psychodynamic researchers favour clinical case studies and interpretive methods, which trade replicability for depth.

Question 10

M1 explains that as stated the claim is unfalsifiable because it is so broad and interpretable that no possible observation could count as disconfirming evidence oe
A1 applies Popper: unfalsifiable claims are not scientific because they cannot be tested and risk being immunised against refutation oe
B1 suggests a reformulation that is testable, e.g. specify measurable indicators of wish fulfilment and predict a directional relationship between those indicators and dream content in an operationalised study oe
Answer: The claim is unfalsifiable because its broad, interpretive wording allows any dream to be reinterpreted as wish fulfilment, so no observation could decisively disprove it. Popper would say such claims are unscientific because they cannot be tested. To make it falsifiable the researcher could operationalise 'wish fulfilment', for example by predicting that dreams scored for specific wish-related themes using a validated coding scheme will occur more often among people who report strong conscious desires on a standardised questionnaire; finding no association would then falsify the specific hypothesis.

Question 11

M1 explains implication 1: failed replication undermines the reliability of the original finding and suggests that single studies are insufficient evidence oe
A1 develops why this matters for scientific status: reproducibility is central to scientific method, so failures reduce confidence in cumulative knowledge and indicate methodological weaknesses oe
M1 explains implication 2: failed replication can prompt methodological improvements or theory revision rather than showing psychology is not scientific oe
A1 develops that this demonstrates self-correction, a scientific strength: coordinated replication efforts, preregistration and improved methods are examples of science responding to reproducibility problems oe
Answer: A failure to replicate undermines the reliability of the original result and shows that a single study is not enough to establish a scientific fact, which weakens claims that psychology is reliably cumulative. However, such failures also stimulate methodological reform and theory revision, which demonstrates scientific self-correction and so can be taken as evidence that psychology operates scientifically when researchers respond by improving methods and replicating systematically.

Question 12

M1 identifies reason 1: researcher bias or theoretical perspective can shape what is studied and how data are interpreted oe
A1 gives an example and explains consequence, e.g. a researcher committed to a cognitive explanation may design measures that favour cognitive interpretations, reducing neutrality of interpretation oe
M1 identifies reason 2: some psychological phenomena are subjective or internal and require interpretation, making purely objective measurement difficult oe
A1 gives an example and explains consequence, e.g. measuring unconscious motives or dreams often relies on interpretive methods like thematic coding which involve subjective judgement and limit replicability oe
Answer: Strict objectivity is hard because researchers' theoretical commitments can influence which questions are asked and how results are interpreted, for example a cognitive researcher may favour information-processing measures that bias interpretation. Also, many psychological phenomena are internal and subjective, such as unconscious motives or dream content, requiring interpretive coding that introduces researcher judgement and reduces purely objective measurement.

Question 13

Level 4 (13-16): Knowledge of scientific features is accurate and detailed. Evaluation is well developed and balanced, using relevant named examples or approaches. The discussion integrates AO1 description and AO3 evaluation coherently, and considers both supporting and challenging evidence about psychology's status as a science. Arguments are clear and well organised, with appropriate specialist terms used correctly.
Level 3 (9-12): Knowledge is clear with some detail. Evaluation is sound and partly balanced, using some named examples. The answer links description and evaluation, but may be less comprehensive or less consistently developed than a top-band answer. Specialist terms are used appropriately for the most part.
Level 2 (5-8): Knowledge is present but limited or partly inaccurate. Evaluation is superficial or unbalanced and examples may be general rather than named. The response shows some relevance to the question but lacks depth, organisation or precise use of terminology.
Level 1 (1-4): Knowledge is very limited and answers may be fragmentary. Evaluation is minimal or absent. Little or no use of relevant examples. The answer lacks structure and specialist terminology is largely absent or incorrect.
Level 0 (0): No creditable content.
Indicative content:
- AO1 description: Objectivity and the empirical method, psychologists use controlled experiments, operationalisation and quantitative measurement to reduce bias, illustrated by behaviourist laboratory studies on conditioning.
- AO1 description: Falsifiability, Popper's criterion, why testable predictions matter and how unfalsifiable claims (broad psychoanalytic claims) were criticised for lacking scientific status.
- AO1 description: Replicability and the role of direct and conceptual replication in building reliable knowledge, plus recent replication projects in social psychology.
- AO1 description: Kuhn's paradigms and paradigm shifts, examples such as the rise of behaviourism emphasising observable data, then the cognitive revolution introducing information-processing models and new methods.
- AO3 evaluation: Strengths supporting psychology as a science: use of empirical methods, experimental control, predictive theories in cognitive and biological approaches, ability to falsify many hypotheses, and self-correcting practices such as replications and methodological reform.
- AO3 evaluation: Limitations: some psychological phenomena are subjective and resist full operationalisation, interpretive methods (psychodynamic case studies) are not easily falsifiable or replicable, researcher bias and theory-driven observation can limit objectivity, and paradigm disputes show psychology is not a unified science.
- AO3 evaluation: Use named examples, e.g. behaviourism's emphasis on observable, replicable experiments supports scientific status; Freud's psychodynamic theory is criticised by Popper as unfalsifiable; the cognitive revolution shows a paradigm shift bringing more experimental, testable models; replication crises in social psychology reveal vulnerabilities but also prompt scientific reforms like preregistration.
- AO3 evaluation: Balanced conclusion might state that psychology contains both highly scientific elements and areas that are more interpretive or contested, so it is partially scientific depending on the approach and methods used; highlight the importance of methodological plurality and improving standards to strengthen psychology's scientific claims.

Features of Science: Objectivity, Falsifiability, Replication and Paradigms - Worksheets, Questions and Revision